Animal Figures in the Maya Codices
A >> Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen >> Animal Figures in the Maya CodicesTranscriber's Note
A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a
[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
end of the text.
The following codes are used for characters that are not able to be
represented in the text format used for this version of the book.
[)a] a with breve
[c] open o
[[c].] open o with dot under
[=h] h with stroke
[p.] p with dot under
[^q] q with circumflex
[vs] s with caron
[vs.] s with caron and dot under
[t.] t with dot under
[ts.] ts with dot under
[+] Dagger
[++] Double dagger
PAPERS
OF THE
PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
VOL. IV.--No. 3.
ANIMAL FIGURES
IN THE
MAYA CODICES
BY
ALFRED M. TOZZER, PH.D.
AND
GLOVER M. ALLEN, PH.D.
CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
FEBRUARY, 1910
Salem Press:
THE SALEM PRESS CO., SALEM MASS.
1910.
NOTE
It has been thought desirable, for the advancement of the study of Maya
hieroglyphs, that the interpretation of the conventionalized animal
figures, which so frequently occur in the Maya codices, should be
undertaken. The Peabody Museum Committee on Central American Research
therefore requested Dr. A. M. Tozzer to prepare a paper on the subject,
and to secure the valuable cooperation of Dr. Glover M. Allen, a
zoologist familiar with the animals of Mexico and Central America, to
aid in the identification of the various species of animals which under
varying forms are used in connection with the glyphs.
While it is possible that some of the determinations given in this paper
may require further confirmation, it is evident that the combined
studies of Dr. Tozzer and Dr. Allen cannot fail to be useful to students
of the Maya hieroglyphic writing.
F. W. PUTNAM.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
August, 1909.
KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF MAYA WORDS
The vowels and consonants have their continental sounds with the
following exceptions:--
=[)a]= like _u_ in hut
=ai= like _i_ in island
=k= (Beltran's _c_) ordinary palatal _k_
=q= (Beltran's _k_) velar _k_
=[[c].]= (Beltran's _[c]_) _ts_ explosive or fortis
=[c]= (Beltran's _tz_) _ts_ non-explosive
=[vs]= (Beltran's _x_) like _sh_ in hush
=t[vs]= (Beltran's _ch_) like _ch_ in church
=[ts.]= (Beltran's _c[=h]_) _ch_ explosive
=[p.]= (Beltran's _pp_) _p_ explosive
=t= (Beltran's _t[=h]_) _t_ explosive
LIST OF PLATES
Plate.
1. Mollusca: _Fasciolaria gigantea, Oliva_.
2. Insecta: Honey bee (_Melipona_).
3. Insecta and Myriapoda.
4. Arachnoidea, Arachnida, Crustacea.
5. Myriapoda, Pisces.
6. Pisces.
7. Amphibia.
8. Amphibia, Reptilia.
9. Reptilia: Rattlesnake (_Crotalus_).
10. Reptilia: Serpents.
11. Reptilia: Serpents.
12. Reptilia: Iguana, Lizards.
13. Reptilia: Crocodile
14. Reptilia: Turtles.
15. Aves: Herons, Frigate-bird.
16. Aves: Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis ocellata_).
17. Aves: King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_).
18. Aves: King Vulture (_S. papa_), Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_).
19. Aves: Vultures.
20. Aves: Harpy Eagle (_Thrasaetos harpyia_).
21. Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_).
22. Aves: Yucatan Horned Ow[TN-1] (_B. v. mayensis_).
23. Aves: Yucatan Screech Owl (_Otus choliba thompsoni_).
24. Aves: Quetzal (_Pharomacrus mocinno_).
25. Aves: Blue Macaw (_Ara militaris_).
26. Aves: Parrots, Turkeys.
27. Aves: Miscellaneous.
28. Various animals.
29. Mammalia: Armadillo and miscellaneous.
30. Mammalia: Deer, Hare.
31. Mammalia: Yucatan Deer (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_).
32. Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_),
Yucatan Deer (_O. yucatanensis_).
33. Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_T. a. yucatanense_).
34. Mammalia: Jaguar, Puma.
35. Mammalia: Jaguar, Coyote, Bear.
36, 37. Mammalia: Dog (_Canis_).
38. Mammalia: Leaf-nosed Bat (_Vampyrus_ or _Phyllostomus_).
39. Mammalia: Monkey (_Cebus_) and miscellaneous.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT
FIG.
1. Top of Altar T, Copan (Mandslay,[TN-2] I. Pl. 95) 320
2. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras, representing a
vulture. Peabody Museum Memoirs. I. No. 4, fig. 15 332
3. }
4. } Glyphs of Maya month _Moan_ showing moan-bird
5. } characteristics 339
6. }
7. Quetzal from the bas-relief of the Temple of the Cross,
Palenque 341
8. }
9. } Glyphs for Maya month _Kankin_ (Ribs of dogs) 364
10. }
11. }
12. }
13. } Glyphs for Maya month _Zotz_ (Bats) 365
14. }
15. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras (Peabody Museum
Memoirs, I, No. 4, fig. 14), representing an ape 366
16. }
17. }
18. } Glyphs for Maya day _Chuen_ 367
19. }
20. }
21. }
22. } Glyphs of God C. (Schellhas, Peabody Museum Papers, IV, 368
23. } No. 1)
24. }
INTRODUCTION.
The various peoples inhabiting Mexico and Central America in early
pre-Columbian times were accustomed to record various events, especially
in regard to their calendar and the religious ceremonials in relation to
it, on long strips of skin or bark. These were usually painted on both
sides and folded together like a screen. Several of these codices are
still in existence from the Nahua and Zapotec areas in Mexico, but only
three have come down to us from the Maya region which is included in the
peninsula of Yucatan, the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, and
portions of Guatemala and Honduras. These three manuscripts are the
Dresden Codex in the Royal Public Library at Dresden, the
Tro-Cortesianus (formerly considered to have been two, the Troano and
the Cortesianus) in the National Archaeological Museum at Madrid, and
the Peresianus in the National Library at Paris. These pre-Columbian
manuscripts have all been published in facsimile. (See bibliography.)
These remains of a once extensive literature show evidence not only of
considerable intellectual attainments on the part of their authors but
also of a high degree of artistic skill in the drawings and
hieroglyphics. The frequent occurrence in these manuscripts of
representations of animals showing various degrees of elaboration and
conventionalization has led us to undertake the task of identifying
these figures as far as possible and studying the uses and significance
of the several species, a field practically untouched.[284-*]
Foerstemann in his various commentaries on the Maya codices (1902, 1903,
1906), Brinton (1895), and deRosny[TN-3] (1876) have only commented briefly
upon this side of the study of the manuscripts. Seler (1904a) and some
others have written short papers on special animals. During the
preparation of this paper there has appeared a brief account by Stempell
(1908) of the animals in the Maya codices. The author has, however,
omitted a number of species and, as we believe, misidentified others. In
making our identifications we have given the reasons for our
determinations in some detail and have stated the characteristics
employed to denote the several species.
We have not limited ourselves entirely to the Maya manuscripts as we
have drawn upon the vast amount of material available in the stone
carvings, the stucco figures, and the frescoes found throughout the Maya
area. This material has by no means been exhausted in the present paper.
In addition to the figures from the Maya codices and a comparatively few
from other sources in the Maya region, we have introduced for comparison
in a number of cases figures from a few of the ancient manuscripts of
the Nahuas and the Zapotecs to the north. The calendar of these two
peoples is fundamentally the same as that of the Mayas. The year is made
up in the same way being composed of eighteen months of twenty days each
with five days additional at the end of the year. There is therefore a
more or less close connection as regards subject matter in all the
pre-Columbian codices of Mexico and Central America but the manner of
presentation differs among the different peoples of this region.
FOOTNOTES:
[284-*] The first two parts of Dr. Seler's Treatise, "Die Tierbilder der
mexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften" published in the _Zeitschrift
fuer Ethnologie_, Vol. 41, have appeared during the time when this paper
was passing through the press. The most excellent and exhaustive
treatment by Dr. Seler would seem to render the present paper
unnecessary. It has seemed best, however, to continue with its
publication inasmuch as its field is narrower and more space is devoted
to the Maya side of the question to the exclusion of the Mexican. Dr.
Seler, on the other hand, while by no means neglecting the Maya, has
spent more time in explaining the Mexican figures.
I
SYNOPTIC CONSIDERATION OF THE MEANING AND OCCURRENCE OF ANIMAL FORMS
Before taking up the different animals in the codices it may be well to
consider some of the more common ways in which the figures occur and
their connection with the surrounding figures.
MANNER OF REPRESENTATION. The entire body of the animal may be
represented realistically or the head alone may be shown. The animal
head is frequently attached to a human body. The animal may appear
conventionalized to a greater or less extent and the head in turn may
change in the same way until only a single characteristic of the animal
remains by which to identify it as, for example, the spots of the jaguar
or the feathering around the eye of the macaw. In the case of the
glyphs, a term employed to designate the regular and usually square
characters appearing in lines or columns throughout the codices and
inscriptions, we find both the realistic drawing and that where
conventionalism has come in.
THE TONALAMATL. The Maya codices are made up, for the most part, of the
records of the sacred period of two hundred and sixty days, a period
called in Nahuatl, _tonalamatl_, and other numerical calculations. The
_tonalamatl_ was used for purposes of divination in order to find out
whether good or bad fortune was in store for an individual. It is not
necessary at this place to go into the different means taken to record
this period of time or its methods of use. It may be well, however, to
explain the usual distribution of the pictures in the codices, including
those of animals, in connection with the representation of the
_tonalamatl_. A normal period is shown in Dresden 6c-7c. A column of
five day signs occurs in the middle of 6c with a single red dot over it.
To the right of this column stretches a horizontal line of numbers
consisting of alternate groups of black and red lines and dots. Under
each pair of red and black numbers there is usually a human form and
over each pair a group of four glyphs belonging to the figure below.
Schellhas (1904) has classified the various figures of gods appearing in
these vignettes of the _tonalamatl_ and lettered them. References
throughout the paper will be made to the gods by letters and the reader
is referred to Schellhas' paper. Animal figures often take the place of
these gods as in the second picture in Dresden 7c where the screech owl
is shown with human body. The greater number of animal figures in the
codices occur in some connection with these _tonalamatls_.
MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS. Where figures are shown with human body and animal
head standing alone in the place usually occupied by one of the various
deities in the _tonalamatl_, there can be little doubt that they have a
mythological meaning and are to be taken, either as gods themselves, or
as representing certain of the gods. All of the animals are by no means
shown in this position. The screech owl, or Moan bird (as in Dresden
10a) appears most frequently in this way. The king vulture (Dresden 8a),
the dog (Dresden 7a), and the parrot (Dresden 40b) come next in
descending importance. The animals represented as copulating (as in
Dresden 13c) might also be considered as mythological animals as well as
the full drawings of the jaguar (Dresden 8a) and the other animals when
they occur alone in the regular vignette of the _tonalamatl_. The four
priests in Dresden 25a-28a should also be regarded as representing, in
all probability, the dog as a mythological animal. The idea of
worshipping animals as gods in themselves is strengthened by noting the
ease with which the Maya people worshipped the horse which was left
behind by Cortes in his march from Mexico across to Honduras
(Villagutierre, 1701, pp. 100-101).
ASTRONOMICAL IDEAS. Animals frequently have a part to play in relation
to the constellations. Throughout the codices and, to a less degree, in
the stone carvings, we find what have usually been considered to be
glyphs for several of the constellations. Numerous calculations in the
codices make it clear that the Mayas had a good knowledge of astronomy.
These glyphs are usually oblong in shape and three or more are arranged
together end to end. We have called these the constellation bands.
Various attempts have been made to identify these signs of the various
constellations. Animals frequently are pictured below these bands. The
dog with fire brands in his paws and often attached to his tail is shown
in several places coming head downward from one of these bands (as in
Dresden 36a). The peccary is also shown in the same position although
the fire brands do not appear (Dresden 68a). A figure with macaw head
occurs once standing beneath one of these bands with fire brands in his
hands (Dresden 40b). The serpent (as in Dresden 36a), the
lizard-crocodile-like animal in Dresden 74, the turtle (Tro-Cortesianus
71a), the vulture (Dresden 38b), the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b), and
the deer (Tro-Cortesianus 47a) all appear in connection with these
constellation bands. It is impossible at this time to decide upon the
part these various animals play in relation to distinct constellations.
In addition to the animals named, several of the gods, especially god B,
are found below these bands. One of these signs, the one identified by
Foerstemann as standing for Saturn, is composed of the head of the
crocodile more or less conventionalized.
Foerstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer solstice
and the snail as the animal associated with the winter solstice. There
does not seem to be any one animal used in connection with any one of
the cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c the dog seems to be
associated with the north as shown by the glyph which is ordinarily
regarded as connected with that direction, the ape with the west, and an
unidentifiable bird sitting on a _Cimi_ (death) sign with the south. The
east is connected in this place with a human figure. It should be
stated, however, that it is not absolutely certain that the usual
assignment of the cardinal points, each to its special direction, is
correct. The signs for the east and west as well as those for the north
and south may be reversed. With the exception of the assignment of the
offering-glyphs to the various cardinal points which will be discussed
later (p. 290) this is almost the only case where a clear relation can
be made out between the various animals and the signs for the four
directions. There is no definite relation as is seen, for example, in
the Vaticanus 3773, 17, 18 where the quetzal is noted perched on the
tree of the east, the eagle on that of the north, the humming bird on
that of the west, and the jaguar on the tree of the south.
COPULATION. The conception, the period of pregnancy, the infant baptism,
and possibly, the naming of children are shown in both the
Tro-Cortesianus (91-95) and the Dresden (13-23). Animals are frequently
shown copulating with various gods or with one another. In Dresden 13c,
the deer and god M and the vulture and the dog; in 19c, the vulture and
a woman; in Tro-Cortesianus 91d, a god and a woman; and in 92d, an
armadillo and a deer both with female figures. These animals probably
represent in some way the totems of the man or woman in question and are
shown in place of the human figure. The Lacandones, a Maya people, show
at the present time the remains of a totemic system (Tozzer, 1907, pp.
40-42). The deer (_Ke_) gens is found at the present time. In the
greater number of cases where copulation is shown a god and a female
figure are pictured. The presentation of the new-born children by women
with bird head-dresses, also occurring in this same section of both
manuscripts, is discussed later (p. 291).
ANIMAL SACRIFICES. Various ceremonials occurring at intervals throughout
the Maya year which included sacrifices to the gods, evidently took up a
large part of the time of the people. Animals composed by far the major
part of the gifts made to the gods. This was especially true in regard
to the ceremonies occurring at the beginning of each year. According to
the Maya calendar there were four days only which could come at the
beginning of the year and these came in succession. Landa (1864, pp.
210-233), the first Bishop of Yucatan, gives a minute description of the
rites of the four years which were named according to the initial day.
He also relates the manner in which the various animals are employed as
offerings in these rites and also in others taking place at the
beginning of the various months.[289-*]
The rites which took place at the beginning and the end of the year are
shown in Dresden 25-28 and in Tro-Cortesianus 34-37. The dog, the deer,
and the turkey are the most important of the animals shown as being
offered to the gods in this connection. It will not be necessary to
consider these animals in detail at this place as they are each taken up
later.
OFFERINGS SHOWN BY GLYPHS. It is, however, in another connection than
that just considered that the animals are shown as offerings far more
frequently throughout the Maya manuscripts. In the ceremonies of the
four years, the animals and birds are, for the most part, represented
entire and purely as pictures. Offerings are also shown in the form of
glyphs. These may occur in connection with the figures of the gods or in
the lines of hieroglyphs above the pictures. When they are used in the
former relation they are usually shown as resting in a bowl or dish
(Dresden 35a). It frequently happens that when a god is making an
offering represented by the entire animal or a glyph of the animal in
the main picture, there is a corresponding glyph of the offering above
in the line of hieroglyphics (Dresden 23b).
The fish, iguana, turkey, deer and possibly the lizard are the usual
animals shown as glyphs in this connection. The frigate bird occurs once
in the Dresden (35a) and once in the Tro-Cortesianus (34a) as an
offering. The dog, curiously enough, does not seem to be represented by
an offering-glyph although he has a glyph of his own when appearing in
other connections. The iguana and fish are shown entire although drawn
very small; the head is the only part usually shown of the turkey and
the haunch of venison of the deer. The head and feet of the lizard, as
has been noted, may also be shown by a glyph. The turkey and iguana
glyphs are very often found with a _Kan_ sign indicating an offering of
maize and bread as well as that of the animal. In connection with glyphs
showing various offerings of food, there is one which occurs especially
in the Tro-Cortesianus (as in 106a). This shows a row of points
themselves running to a point over a _Kan_ sign. This, as will be
pointed out later (p. 318) may also represent an iguana. The jar
containing a representation of the honey comb (as in Tro-Cortesianus
107b) might come in here in the consideration of the offering-glyphs.
In many instances the common offerings shown by glyphs are found
associated with the signs for the four cardinal points but there does
not seem to be any strict uniformity as to the special offering
associated with each direction. In Dresden 29b, the lizard glyph is
found in the same group with the sign commonly assigned to the east, the
turkey with the south, the iguana with the west, and the fish with the
north while in Dresden 29c, the deer is associated with the east, the
fish with the south, the iguana with the west, and the turkey with the
north. The iguana is usually found with the sign for the west and the
fish with that of the south. The others vary greatly in the assignment
of the various directions.
Schellhas (1904, p. 17) considers that the fish, the lizard, "the
sprouting kernel of maize or (according to Foerstemann, parts of a
mammal, game)" and a vulture's head are symbols of the four elements.
The head which Schellhas interprets as that of the vulture is certainly
the head of a turkey. He remarks that these signs of the four elements
appear with god B in the Dresden manuscript. Other gods, as he also
notes, are found with these four offering-glyphs. There seems to be a
fifth glyph, however, (as in Dresden 29b) which we have interpreted as
that of a lizard.
ANIMALS AS RAIN BEARERS. Various animals are associated with the rain
and water. The serpent is most frequently represented in this
connection. Snails, fish, the turtle, and the frog, as well as the
lizard-crocodile figure in Dresden 74 are naturally found associated
with water. The vulture-headed figure in Dresden 38b and the vulture as
a bird in Tro-Cortesianus 10a both appear in the rain. The peccary
(Dresden 68a), and the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) appear associated
with the rain as well as with the constellation bands. The scorpion
(Tro-Cortesianus 7a) encloses the rain within its legs.
The connection of an old female figure occurring in many places in the
codices with the rain will be discussed later (p. 316) when considering
the serpent. It remains at this place to comment upon the woman in
Tro-Cortesianus 30b from whose breasts water is flowing. She is
represented as having animal figures seated on her two outstretched
hands and on her right foot together with another animal at her side.
God B sits on her left foot. This picture immediately recalls
representations in the Mexican codices where the various parts of the
body of a god are associated with various day signs, ten of which have
animal names. In the Maya picture, a jaguar is shown on the right hand,
a peccary on the left, a dog on the right foot, and a rabbit beside the
body at her right. The peccary is not represented among the Nahua day
signs but the other three are found, namely the _oceolotl_ (jaguar),
_itzcuintli_ (dog), and _tochtli_ (rabbit).
ANIMAL HEAD-DRESSES. Animal figures appear perhaps most frequently as
head-dresses of the various gods in the codices. Here, as elsewhere,
from all that can be made out, the religious character is uppermost as
in addition to being a decoration, they undoubtedly have some religious
signification. Birds occur by far most commonly in this connection. Both
male and female figures seems to have these head-dresses. The same bird
is often found as the head-dress of several different gods as, for
example, the turkey which appears with gods A, B, C, E, and N. The
vulture, on the other hand, when used as a head-dress for male figures,
appears exclusively with god F. The whole bird is seldom represented on
the head-dress of the male figures. It is usually only the head and a
part of the body of the bird which forms but a portion of the whole
head-covering. Landa (1864, p. 148)[292-*] notes the dress of the leader
in the rites. He wears a jacket of red feathers worked with other
feathers and from it hang long plumes. He also wears a feather
head-dress.
Entire birds appear as the sole head-covering only in connection with
female figures and then only in one section of the Dresden (16-18) and a
parallel passage in the Tro-Cortesianus (94-95). In both these places
the conception and the bearing of children are shown together with their
baptism. The bird above the head of each female figure seems to be a
badge of office, possibly the totems which are held by the women and
given to the children. The parrot, quetzal, vulture, screech owl and the
horned owl appear in this connection. It is to be noted that the birds
associated with these women are not really represented as head-dresses
at all. They are quite different from the head decoration composed of a
bird's head and feathers seen in other parts of the manuscripts. In the
Dresden especially, these birds above the women's heads are shown in
almost every case standing with the claws clasping the necklace at the
back of the neck. Landa (1864, pp. 144-154) gives an interesting account
of the method of baptising children. He also states (p. 304)[292-[+]]
that in the month _Yaxkin_ an old woman brought the little girls to the
general feast. This old woman was dressed in a garment of feathers. It
was understood that this devoted old woman was not permitted to become
intoxicated[293-*] lest she should lose in the road the plume of her
office.