Roumania Past and Present

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II.

The appearance of the plain on leaving the flat monotonous banks of the
Danube is anything but prepossessing. Although the land begins to rise
almost immediately, the surrounding scenery is flat and arid. The soil,
which is black or dark grey, is chiefly argillo-siliceous, and the plain
is overrun with coarse grass, weeds, and stunted shrubs, diversified by
fields of maize, patches of yellow gourds, and kitchen vegetables. Here
and there the railway runs through or skirts plantations. The chief
plants in this region (and this applies to the plains generally) are
willows, alders, poplars, and tamarinds, but chiefly willows and poplars
amongst the trees and larger plants; maize, wheat, millet, and other
cereals, and a variety of fruits and vegetables which will be spoken of
in connection with the more elevated regions. The first impression which
is made upon the traveller coming from our own beautiful hedgerows and
pastures, or from the richly cultivated plains of Transylvania, is that
agriculture is slovenly and neglected, and that impression is never
wholly lost in whatever direction he may travel; although, as we shall
see presently, the higher zones are much more carefully cultivated.[9]

[Illustration: ROUMANIAN PEASANTS IN WORKING DRESS.]

The peasantry at work in the fields present a novel and interesting
appearance to the stranger, and still more striking are some of their
habitations. The men generally wear a long white coarse linen blouse
with trousers of the same material. The blouse is drawn in at the waist
by a coil of cords or by a belt, and frequently sandals are worn, in
which case the cords fastening them are wound some distance up the leg.
Hats of common felt, cheap cloth, or high cylindrical caps of sheepskin,
complete the external attire. In winter sheepskins take the place of the
coarse linen tunic. There are two types of face to be met with amongst
them, both of which are here depicted. The one has long moustaches and
shaven face; the other type, which is said to resemble the Dacians of
Trajan's Column, has the hair growing all over the face. The latter
appeared to the author to resemble the generality of Russian peasants,
and this view was confirmed by one or two lending observers in the
country.[10]

[Illustration: PEASANTS AT A WELL.]

The women, as in many other continental countries, are the chief workers
in the fields, and they are said to be much more industrious than the
men. They are not alone engaged in agricultural pursuits, but perform
the work of navvies, making roads, and along with the men digging
railway embankments. They usually wear a kerchief rather gracefully
folded over the head and under the chin; the upper part of the body is
clothed in a loose-fitting jacket or bodice, sometimes white, but often
of very bright showy material, and the lower limbs are covered with a
skirt which is usually of a darker colour than the jacket; but this is
also frequently made of a bright-coloured fabric. This is their
every-day dress, and thus habited the men work with square-bladed spades
resembling our own, whilst those of the women have handles as long as a
broomstick and bent spade-or heart-shaped blades. The gala or holiday
dresses of the peasantry are very handsome, each district having its
own peculiar costume, but of these we will say a few words hereafter.
Sometimes, as one walks or drives through the country, he may see the
peasants gossiping at the well, which is a hole dug in the ground and
fenced in with planks, the bucket being raised and lowered by means of a
very primitive contrivance. This consists of a horizontal tree-trunk
swinging upon another tall vertical one forked at the top; a chain
depends from one end of the horizontal beam or bar, to which the bucket
is attached, whilst the other end is counterpoised by means of stones.
Some of the wells are worked with a windlass and fly-wheel, but the one
just described frequently attracts the traveller's notice.

More primitive even than the wells are some of the peasants' houses in
the plains, if the hovels which serve as habitations can be so
dignified. A large hole, somewhat resembling in shape an old-fashioned
saw-pit, but of course of greater dimensions, is dug deep into the
ground. This is lined with clay, if necessary, and from the ground or
immediately above it a roof is formed of branches and twigs, in the
centre of which a hole is left for the issue of smoke. Sometimes a
primitive doorway forms the entrance, and the people descend either by
steps or an inclined plane, whilst at the opposite end a window is
inserted. Occasionally, but not always, a small drain is cut round these
semi-subterranean dwellings, which, as already stated, are chiefly to be
found on the plains, for the purpose of carrying off surface water. It
is hardly necessary to say that in these underground cells men, women,
and children live together higgledy-piggledy, and that the result of
such an existence is widespread disease. Marsh fever is one of the most
prevalent and malignant maladies of the plains; there is hardly a family
(and the families of the peasantry are very numerous) in which one or
more children have not been carried off by this fever. Still there are
those who maintain that the subterranean houses are not unhealthy, and
they are not necessarily an indication of poverty. Such hovels, it is
said, were first constructed in order that they might escape the
observation of those bands of marauders, first of one nation, then of
another, who have at various times overrun and pillaged the fair
Danubian territory; that they were originally surrounded by trees which
have been cut down for firewood; and that the spirit of conservatism,
causes many peasants, otherwise well-to-do, to prefer these underground
dwellings to the cottages of modern construction which constitute the
villages of the higher lands. This seems a plausible explanation of
their presence; but in a country which is largely cultivated, as we
shall hear, by a peasant proprietary, such a primitive mode of
existence, worthy of the days when the barbarians ravaged Roumanian
territory, is not likely long to continue.

[Illustration: SUBTERRANEAN DWELLINGS WITH PEASANTS.]

So far as the peasantry are concerned, they are a fine healthy body of
men and women, and we shall have an opportunity further on of enquiring
into their habits and condition.

After travelling inland in imagination for the best part of a day--for a
Roumanian railway train does not emulate the 'Flying Dutchman' in
rapidity, although it is a considerable advance upon the old mode of
progression when a dozen horses were often requisite to drag a single
carriage along the muddy roads--and having left the city of Bucarest
with its many cupolas and spires behind us for the present, we approach
the second, more elevated tract of country.[11]

As the distance from the Danube increases, we enter upon a much more
diversified and smiling landscape, and almost every plant growth of the
sub-tropical and temperate zones is to be found there. Amongst trees the
oak, elm, and beech are the most conspicuous; but besides these the
maple, sycamore, mountain ash, lime, horse-chestnut, acacia; and of
fruit trees, the walnut, hazel nut, plum, medlar, cherry, apple, pear,
and vine are frequent. Fields of maize are interspersed with beds of
bright yellow gourds. Wheat, oats, millet, and other cereals are common,
and, in the gardens, roses, geraniums, verbenas, asters, mignonette, and
a great variety of other well-known flowers of the temperate zone, add
beauty and variety to the scene. Indeed, so far as natural productions
are concerned, this part of Roumania leaves nothing to be desired, and
that these blessings of the soil are as plentiful as they are good is to
be found in the cheapness of the fruits offered for sale. Little baskets
containing twenty or thirty fine purple plums may be had for a penny,
and beautiful peaches or large bunches of fine grapes, of natural growth
of course, are purchasable at a proportionately low price. Neither of
the latter fruits is equal to those forced in our houses, but they are
well-flavoured and tender.

And so, too, the peasantry and their habitations wear the appearance of
comfort and prosperity. No more subterranean dwellings, but, in place
thereof, villages consisting of habitations which resemble more or less
the cottages and chalets of Switzerland and the Tyrol, although they are
not generally so well built nor yet so picturesque. They are usually
constructed of wood, bricks, and plaster, and are well whitewashed,
their roofs consisting of little wooden or baked clay tiles or slates,
and they have every convenience belonging to such dwellings. The
roadside cabarets, or public-houses, are often very picturesque, the
roof being frequently ornamented with festoons of vines indicative of
the creature comforts dispensed within.

[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO CARPATHIAN VILLAGE.]

As we enter into the hill country, groups of peasants, men and women,
may be seen on the roads and railways, keeping them in order, cutting
banks and repairing bridges, and the women working with the
peculiar-shaped long spades of which mention has already been made.

[Illustration: MEN AND WOMEN ROAD-MAKING.]

The wages of such labourers, it may be remarked in passing, are, for
men, 2f. 50c., and for women 1f. 50c., respectively per day. Here, too,
we begin to have indications of something besides agricultural industry.
The smell of petroleum assails the olfactory organs, and we often see
carts drawn by oxen or buffaloes, containing one or more barrels of the
mineral oil; whilst on the hills are to be seen the rude wooden
structures which cover the wells, and roads or tramways along which the
oil is carried into the valley below. As we advance further into the
mountains, evidences of another mineral treasure present themselves.
This is rock-salt, of which cartloads may be seen moving to the railway
stations or piled up in various places. This valuable mineral in no way
resembles our rock-salt, and the large blocks might easily be mistaken
for granite or rough unpolished marble. The appearance and mode of
working one of the great mines of the country will be described
hereafter; and the chief localities in which salt and petroleum are
raised will be found on our geographical map. The principal salt mines
are the _Doftana_ (Prahova) near Campina, _Poiana_, and _Slanic_
(Prahova), _Ocnele_ Mari (Ramnicu), _Targu Ocna_ (Bacau). The chief
petroleum wells are also near Campina, at _Colibasu_, _Pacuri_,
_Doftanet_, _Telega_ &c., _Moineste_, &c., (Bacau). There are refineries
at Tirgovistea, Peatra. Ploiesti, &c.

[Footnote 9: The Roumanians recognise that a great part of the country
is much neglected, and that weeds are allowed to grow to the detriment
of agriculture. The _Independance Roumaine_, September 13 [25], 1881,
had a strong article on the subject.]

[Footnote 10: We do not intend to discuss this question, which is so
interesting to Roumanians, but we cannot help drawing attention to
Paget's remarks on the subject. He says, in one of his headings,
'Wallacks of Dacian, not Roman origin;' then (p. 112) lie gives woodcuts
of two heads with moustache only (sketched without any reference to the
question), and somewhat resembling our cut, and leaves his readers to
compare them with the figures on Trajan's Column. He says that he feels
satisfied they will agree with his view. They do not, however, in the
least resemble either the Romans with bare, or the Dacians with bearded
faces, on the column, and throw no light whatever upon the vexed
question. The general opinion of persons who have observed the peasantry
is that those of the mountain districts afford, in their type of face,
habits, and some words, the best illustrations in support of the
Daco-Roman hypothesis.]

[Footnote 11: Wilkinson's account of travelling in his day (1820) is
worth quoting. 'The mode of travelling,' he says, 'in the two
principalities is so expeditious that in this respect it is not equalled
in any other country. Their post establishments are well organised;
there are post-houses in all directions, and they are abundantly
provided with horses. Every idea of comfort must, however, be set aside
by those who are willing to conform themselves to the common method of
riding post. A kind of vehicle is given which is not unlike a very small
crate of earthenware fastened to four small wheels by means of wooden
pegs, and altogether not higher than a common wheelbarrow. It is filled
with straw, and the traveller sits in the middle of it, keeping the
upper part of his body in an erect position, and finding great
difficulty to cram his legs within. Four horses are attached to it by
cords, which form the whole harness, and driven by one postilion on
horseback, they set off at full speed and neither stop nor slacken their
pace until they reach the next post-house. Within the distance of half a
mile from it, the postilion gives warning of his approach by a repeated
and great cracking of his whip, so that by the time of arrival another
cart is got ready to receive the traveller' (p. 93). (This is still the
system in practice in some parts of Russia, and the author travelled in
this fashion, in the winter of 1849-50, from St. Petersburg to the
Prussian frontier.) Fifty years later matters seem to have retrograded
in Roumania, for Kunisch, an amusing German writer, describes his
journey from Giurgevo to Bucarest, now effected in two or three hours by
rail, which it then took him twenty-four hours to accomplish, at first
with sixteen horses and four postilions, and during the later stages
with eighteen and twenty-two horses. (_Reisebilder_, pp. 73-81. Berlin:
Effert and Lindtner.)]

III.

But we must dwell no longer in this realm of fruitfulness, and must pass
on to the alpine regions beyond. In so doing we change our altitude much
more rapidly than heretofore, and as we travel through the ascending
valleys into the pine-clad rocks and mountains it is difficult to know
with what European highlands to draw a comparison. 'Is it Wales?' the
English reader will naturally enquire. 'No, for the mountains are too
sharp and rocky, and yet not nearly so barren as those of our
principality.' 'Are we in the Pyrenees?' Certainly not; the vegetation
is not so rich, few waterfalls are visible, and there is a slovenly
appearance about the clayey or sandy surface, reddened here and there by
ferruginous streamlets, and covered with weedy-looking brushwood which
is quite at variance with the sloping gardens of the sunny south of
France. Is the scenery Dolomitic? In a sense it is. The summits of the
mountains are often very jagged, Rosszaehne or horses' teeth, as they are
called, but they are dark grey and not white or yellow as the Dolomites.
The trees are the same as in other alpine lands, firs, pines, larch, and
birch growing thickly to a height of about 5,000 or 6,000 feet above the
sea-level; then come grass and alpine flowers, and finally the rough
jagged summit. Whatever region it may resemble, and perhaps its nearest
analogues are the wilder portions of the Bavarian Alps or the less
rugged parts of the Tyrol, it is lovely and romantic, and needs only to
be visited by a few Western tourists to become an extension of the
playground of Europe; for, in combination with beautiful scenery, there
are charming costumes, primitive manners, and some interesting phases
of Oriental life. And should his way lead him to Sinaia, the summer
residence of the Court, and the sanatorium to which the people of
Bucarest resort, not as yet in too great numbers, the visitor will
readily admit that there are few spots in Europe better calculated to
afford rest and refreshment to the wearied mind.[12]

Sinaia presents many attractions for the tourist. Nestling on the slopes
of hills at the junction of three valleys, and immediately surrounded by
mountains which vary in height from 3,000 to 8,000 or 9,000 feet above
the sea-level, and are easily accessible to an ordinary mountaineer, it
consists of a fine old monastery, the temporary residence of the Court,
two good old-fashioned hotels, and a large number of pretty villas, the
property of wealthy landed proprietors, officials, and merchants of
Bucarest. There is a casino, or reading-room, and small concert hall, a
beautiful bathing establishment, and a garden in which a military band
discourses lively and lovely music every evening within hearing of the
guests whilst they are at dinner under verandahs in front of the hotels.
The monastery is situated upon a high hill approached from the valley
below by sloping walks and drives, and it consists of two large
curtilages surrounded by low dwellings, which were formerly (and are
still to some extent) occupied by monks, and now serve as the residences
of the Court and its attendants. The two curtilages are really one
divided across the centre, and in each division is a small Byzantine
church, in which the service of the Orthodox Greek faith is conducted.
At the further extremity of the convent are the apartments of the King
and Queen, and it is hardly necessary to add that everything is done to
render this old building suitable for the abode of royalty.[13] At the
side of the monastery is a verdant plateau, from which there is a
beautiful view, and whereon the peasantry, as well as many officers and
ladies of the Court, may be seen, usually on Sunday afternoon, dancing
the national dances of the country, and more particularly the national
dance, the 'Hora,' of which some account will be given hereafter. Behind
the monastery a small valley penetrates into the mountains. This valley
is, in reality, an extensive wood, containing some magnificent forest
trees and replete with ferns and wild flowers, whilst through the centre
of it a river rushes headlong, forming, as it descends, three beautiful
cascades, the last or highest being surmounted by a towering rock, to
ascend which, alone, is a good morning's healthful enjoyment. Behind
this rock rise the Carpathian peaks, Caraiman, Verful, &c., and from the
summits of these, which may be reached in two or three hours, it is said
that on a clear day the distant Balkans are visible across the Danube.

But if Sinaia, with its surroundings, is beautiful to-day, what will it
be in the future? Close to the railway station, on a conspicuous
eminence, a magnificent hotel is in course of erection to meet the wants
of the increasing number of visitors. At present the King only
possesses, besides his temporary residence in the monastery, a small
chalet known as the 'Pavilion de Chasse,' situated in the woods behind
the monastery. Although this is externally an unassuming little villa,
the interior is beautifully decorated with carved oak, and is furnished
with exquisite articles of the same material, and generally with a taste
for which the first lady of the land is so widely reputed. But the King
is also erecting, in a favoured situation close at hand, a beautiful
summer palace, which will command a magnificent view of the surrounding
scenery; and there he and his Queen will no doubt continue, as they do
in their temporary residence, to dispense a generous hospitality to
visitors, and to secure goodwill and popularity amongst their
subjects.[14]

But we must apologise for this digression, and return to our general
survey.

[Footnote 12: Sinaia may be visited either from Bucarest or
Transylvania. If from Bucarest, the traveller may go by the railway from
Vienna to that city in about thirty hours, and forward to Sinaia in
about four hours more, or he may land at Giurgevo either on his way from
Constantinople by Varna and Rustchuk, or from the steamer down the
Danube from Pesth. If he approaches by Transylvania, it is from
Kronstadt, which is only a couple of hours from Sinaia. Although a visit
to Sinaia only is here described, as being the most easily accessible to
ordinary travellers, there are many beautiful tours to be made in the
Carpathians, and some of the more hardy of the young Roumanians who have
visited Western Europe assured the author that the outlying districts of
the Carpathians afford features of interest to pedestrians which are not
to be found in any of our known mountain districts.]

[Footnote 13: The monastery of Sinaia was founded by the Grand Spathar
Michael Cantacuzene, brother of Voivode Sherban Cantacuzene, in the year
1695.]

[Footnote 14: It is curious to note, in passing, that of about 400 men
who were at work on this palace last year, 150 were Germans, and nearly
all the rest were Italians.]

IV.

In speaking of the appearance of the surface it has been mentioned that
it is sandy or clayey, and it may be useful now to say a few words
concerning the geological formations of the country. Little has been
done by the native geologists in this direction, and the knowledge which
we possess is derived from the observations of a few foreigners who have
published works dealing incidentally with this region.[15] The whole of
Roumania may be said to form the northern portion of the basin of the
Lower Danube. In Bulgaria, on the southern side of the river, where the
banks often rise to a height of 300 or 400 feet, there are distinct
traces of the miocene formation; but there, as on the northern banks,
before the hills are reached, there is a wide plain of loess, tertiary
alluvial deposit. On the northern or Roumanian bank, beginning close to
the Iron Gates in the west, and extending to the eastern embouchures of
the Danube, in fact over the whole zone of the plain already referred
to, this alluvial deposit is found, and at the foot of the Carpathians
it sometimes attains the depth of from 150 to 300 feet, and imparts to
the country a neglected desert appearance where the surface is not
richly wooded or agriculturally clothed in green. The second zone--that
is to say, the lower hills and mountains--is chiefly of miocene
formation; but beneath this, and showing itself at the surface in
various parts, are strata of what Lyell calls 'a subordinate member of
that vast deposit of sandstone and shale which is provincially called
"flysch," and which is believed to form part of the Eocene series.'[16]
In this region, which is called by the Roumanians the region of vines,
are to be found marl, sandstone, chalk, and gypsum, with rock-salt,
petroleum, and lignite. The last-named is an important product of the
country, being used along with wood on the railways, and in brick and
lime kilns.

The southern slopes of the Carpathians consist of various older
strata--secondary, primary, and metamorphic--and the rocks of which they
are composed are limestone, marble, schist (mica-schist and slate), and
gneiss. On the summits are found conglomerates formed of quartz,
limestone, and sandstone.

To this meagre and superficial outline of the geological formations of
the country we have only to add that the inclination of the strata is
generally downwards in the direction of the Danube, and that they are
often contorted in a very remarkable manner.[17]

We have already spoken of the deposits of salt, petroleum, and lignite,
and in association with the second is found the substance known as
ozokerit or fossil wax. This is a brownish-yellow translucent
crystalline hydrocarbon, which softens with the warmth of the hand, and
burns with a bright light. It has never been industrially applied,
excepting in small quantities by the peasantry, who themselves fabricate
rude candles from it; but this is owing rather to want of enterprise
than to scarcity of the deposit. Anthracite, too, is present in various
places, but it is not worked. Of the existence of iron there is no doubt
whatever. Not only are there indications of it in the ferruginous
brooks and springs, but it has been found in association with coal in
various parts of the country.[18] Specimens of haematite have several
times been submitted to analysis, but the results were very
unsatisfactory. One sample tested by M. Hanon gave only 35.5 per cent.,
and another by Dr. Bernath yielded 40 per cent., of metallic iron. That
gold has been found and was worked in the Carpathians as far back as the
Dacian age is well known; and, according to modern writers, cobalt,
sulphur, arsenic, copper,[19] and lead are also present in different
districts, but the workable minerals of Roumania are at present limited
to salt, petroleum, and lignite; and, looking to the importance of the
subject, it is much to be regretted that the Government does not take
the same means to instruct the population in practical geology and
mineralogy as are employed to disseminate agricultural knowledge at the
excellent institution to which reference will be made hereafter. If the
people are only allowed to develop their industries in peace, it will no
doubt soon become apparent that the strata are charged with considerable
stores of mineral wealth.

[Footnote 15: The chief are R.F. Peters (_Die Donau und ihr Gebiet_.
Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1876. Cap. xii. p. 313), Fuchs, Bernath, and D.T.
Ansted. There have also been isolated memoirs published by Roumanians,
but, so far as we could ascertain, no systematic work is extant. The
best general works, touching also on geology, are those of Aurelian and
Obedenare.]

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