Roumania Past and Present

J >> James Samuelson >> Roumania Past and Present

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[Footnote 16: _Principles of Geology_, vol. i. p. 209.]

[Footnote 17: We believe this is really all that is known of the general
stratification, and although little that is positive has been revealed,
writers have made up for the deficiency by any amount of negative
description. Such writers as Aurelian and Obedenare simply deplore the
paucity of information, whilst Fuchs, an able and industrious geologist,
says: 'It is difficult to describe the country because there are such
vast tracts which have a character of despairing monotony; because
fossils are rare and badly preserved, if not entirely wanting; and the
different elevations present exactly similar petrographic appearances;'
in fact, he says that the prominent data are wanting to enable a
geologist to make a classification of the various strata.]

[Footnote 18: See Obedenare, 16-19. Also Cantacuzeno, _Cenni sulla
Romania_, Bucarest, 1875; and Ansted.]

[Footnote 19: Copper exists at Baia d'Arana.]

CHAPTER II.

GEOGRAPHICAL--ARCHAEOLOGICAL.

The river system of Roumania--The 'beautiful blue
Danube'--Appearance of the Lower Danube comparable to the Humber or
Mississippi--Floating mills--The Danube in the Kazan Pass--Grand
scenery--The 'Iron Gates,' misconceptions concerning them--Their
true character--Archaeological remains--Trajan's road--His
tablet--His bridge at Turnu-Severin--Its construction and
history--The tributaries of the Danube and towns upon them--The
fishes of the Roumanian rivers--Lakes--Mineral waters of Balta
Alba--Roman roads--Bridge of Constantine--Roman streets, houses,
temples--Statue of Commodus--Gothic and prehistoric
remains--Climate--Great extremes of heat and cold--Beautiful
autumn--Rainfall-Comparison with other countries--Russian
winds--Sudden daily alternations--Comparison of the country
generally with other European states--Resume of its productions,
resources, and attractions for visitors.

I.

The river system of Roumania constitutes one of the most remarkable
features in its geography, has played an important part in its past
history, and promises to exercise a powerful influence on its industrial
and political future. This system comprises the great main artery, the
Danube, with numerous confluents which take their rise in the
Carpathians, and, rushing at first in torrents, then How as sluggish,
often as half-dry streams, across the country before they empty
themselves into the parent river.

The 'beautiful blue Danube' has been so bepraised that to a traveller
who visits it for its scenic attractions it is likely to prove a bitter
disappointment. It is not blue, although during certain seasons it is
said to have a blue tinge, but a great part of the way from Vienna to
the defile of Kazan, and the whole distance from Orsova to the Black
Sea, it resembles in colour and appearance our river Humber, and we have
heard American travellers compare it to the Mississippi. For hours and
hours at a time it flows between perfectly flat banks, on which nothing
is visible but reeds and willow bushes. The surface of the river is
enlivened by innumerable floating water-mills, which lie at anchor
either in midstream or close to the banks, and obtain their motive power
from the rapidly flowing current. These are used for grinding the maize
and other cereals of the country. Here and there a small town or
fortification presents itself on either bank. On the Bulgarian side are
the towns of Vidin, Nicopolis, Sistova, and Rustchuk, with their domes
and minarets, and idle laughing crowds of gazers, either men
picturesquely clad, or women sitting perched, on the rocks, and looking
like so many sacks of floor all in a row. These certainly break the
monotony of the great stream, but the general appearance of the river
from Verciorova, where it begins to bathe the Roumanian shore, to its
mouth at Sulina is one long flat reach, higher, as we have already said,
on the Bulgarian than on the Roumanian side.

[Illustration: TERMINAL PIER OF TRAJAN'S BRIDGE ON ROUMANIAN SHORE.
(FROM A SKETCH BY THE AUTHOR.)]

But although that is the stretch of the river which comes strictly
within the scope of our survey, there is another portion, lying
immediately above it, that well merits a passing notice, more especially
as we know that it played an important part in the Roman conquest and
the subsequent colonisation of ancient Roumania. There is perhaps no
river scenery in Europe to equal, and certainly none which excels, that
part of the Danube stretching for about seventy-five miles from
Bazias--the terminus of a branch of the railway from Vienna to
Verciorova--to the so-called 'Iron Gates.' It is here that the river
cuts its way through the Carpathians, and whilst along its general
course it varies in width from half a mile to three miles or more, in
the Kazan Pass, a defile having on either side perpendicular rocks of
1,000 to 2,000 feet in height, it narrows in some parts to about 116
yards, and possesses a depth of thirty fathoms. The banks closely
resemble those of a fine Norwegian fiord, rising more or less
precipitously, and being covered with pines and other alpine trees, and
occasionally, as in Norway or even in Scotland, the steamer appears to
be crossing a long mountain-locked lake. At the lower end of this reach
of the Danube are what the metaphor-loving Ottomans first called the
'Iron Gates,' and they no doubt found them an insurmountable barrier to
their western progress up the river. Considerable misapprehension,
however--which is certainly not removed by the accounts of modern
writers, who have apparently copied from one another without visiting
them--exists concerning these same 'Iron Gates.' Some of the writers
referred to speak of 'rocks which form cascades 140 metres' (or about
460 feet) high, 'and which present serious obstacles to navigation.'
Where these cascades are we were not able to discover. The fact is that
the whole descent of the river throughout this portion does not exceed
twenty feet, and where it issues from the outliers of the Carpathians
the banks slope more gently than higher up, and the summits are simply
high hills. The 'Iron Gates' themselves consist of innumerable rocks in
the bed of the river. Here and there they appear above the surface, but
generally they are a little below it, and they break up the whole
surface for a considerable distance into waves and eddies, through which
only narrow passages admit of navigation, insomuch that in certain
states of the river the passengers and cargoes of the large steamers
have to be transferred to smaller boats above, and retransferred to the
larger class of steamers below, the 'Iron Gates.'

II.

But by far the most distinctive, and for us the most interesting,
features of the Danube about here, are its historical reminiscences.
Almost the whole way from Golubatz (Rom. Cuppae) to Orsova, there are
traces on the right (southern) bank of the remarkable road constructed
by Trajan (and probably his predecessors) for his expedition into Dacia,
and at one place opposite to Gradina is a noted tablet inserted in the
rock to commemorate the completion of the road. This tablet has been the
subject of much controversy, and it bears the following inscription:--

IMP. CAESAR. DIVI. NERVAE. F. NERVA. TRAJANUS. AUG. GERM. PONTIE.
MAXIMUS. TRIB. POT. IIII. PATER. PATRIAE.[20]

The Servian peasants, however, have little respect for heroes--at least,
for ancient ones--and the barbarians of seventeen or eighteen centuries
appear to have lighted their fires and cooked their 'mamaliga'[21]
against the tablet until it presents the appearance of a blackened mass.
Of the road itself we shall speak hereafter at some length in connection
with Trajan's expedition, but a few words concerning his bridge at
Turnu-Severin may still be added. All that remains visible to the
traveller to-day are the two terminal piers, of which sketches are here
given; but between those piers the bridge spanned the river, and a very
low state of the water discloses the tops of several other piers still
standing. In speaking of one bridge we have taken rather a liberty with
the facts, for it is now pretty generally admitted that there were
really two structures. Further down the river is a small island which,
in former times, is said to have extended to where the remains of the
bridge are found, and upon this tongue of land the ends of the sections
starting from either shore rested. The land is supposed either to have
sunk or to have been washed away by the current.[22] The bridge, to
which further reference will be made in our historical sketch, was built
after the plans of Apollodorus, the architect of Trajan's Column at
Rome. It was commenced about 103 A.D., and probably consisted of twenty
piers, each 150 Roman feet high and 60 feet broad, and the distance
between the two terminal piers on the banks is about 3,900 English feet.
The piers were of stone, but the upper part of the bridge was wood. In
the northern pier the stone consists of rubble, or artificial
conglomerate composed of small roundish stones and cement, and this was
probably cast into blocks, but the one on the right (southern) bank is
of hewn stone. On the northern side there is an old wall running up
from the pier to the ruins of a tower which was evidently connected with
the bridge.

[Illustration: TERMINAL PIER ON SERVIAN SIDE. (FROM A SKETCH BY THE
AUTHOR.)]

But it would be better that we should reserve any further remarks
concerning the archaeological relics of Roumania, and also some
observations of immediate interest in connection with the Danube, until
we have completed a brief account of the water system of the country.

Between the 'Iron Gates' and its three embouchures, namely, the Khilia,
Sulina, and St. George's mouths, of which only the second is navigable
by large vessels, the Danube stretches fora distance of about 650
miles,[23] and receives in its course numerous tributaries, whereof the
following are the principal on the Roumanian side. The Pruth is the most
important. It forms the boundary between Roumania and Bessarabia
(Russia), and is navigable by small grain-carrying vessels. Next in
importance historically is the _Sereth_, which divided Moldavia from
Wallachia, and the remaining rivers of any moment are the _Oltu_, on
which are situated the towns of Rimnic and Slatina; the _Jalomitza_,
watering Tirgovistea, one of the ancient capitals, and receiving as an
affluent the _Prahova_, which takes its rise near Sinaia. The last-named
is a very interesting river, for in the vicinity of either bank are to
be found the petroleum wells or salt mines. Then there is the _Ardges_,
which flows past the little city of the same name and the town of
Pitesti, and receives the _Dambovitza_, on which the capital, Bucarest,
is situated. In these rivers are to be found in their due seasons many
species of fish, and as fishing is but little preserved they furnish
good sport. The most important kinds used for the table in Roumania are
two or three varieties of sturgeon, trout (small but sweet), herrings,
salmon, shad, pike, and carp, also perch, roach, barbel, tench, &c.
Roumania is not a lake country, and the largest lakes, called Baltas,
are found in the plains near the Danube, whilst amongst the inland
lakes, which are few in number and importance, that of Balta Alba, in
the district of Romnicu Sarat, possesses strong mineral properties, in
which chloride of sodium and carbonate and sulphate of soda
preponderate. Its waters are used for baths, and are said to cure
certain forms of scrofula, rheumatism, neuralgia, and other germane
maladies. Besides Balta Alba, Roumania possesses several other sources
of mineral waters.

[Footnote 20: Paget, vol. ii. p. 44. Dierauer, p. 73, who adds several
more disjointed or isolated letters.]

[Footnote 21: A dish made from maize.]

[Footnote 22: Paget, vol. ii. p. 58. Tocilesco, Plate VII. In the
illustrations there given the number of piers varies, but in both cases
the intermediate island is shown.]

[Footnote 23: The estimates vary from 630 to 650, but these do not make
full allowance for all the windings of the river.]

III.

Returning now to the 'Iron Gates' of the Danube, the portal, as it were,
by which we enter the country, we find in connection with the great
bridge, and also starting from other parts of the Danube, remains of
Roman roads, to one or two of which reference has already been made; and
in the neighbourhood of these, again, evidences of permanent Roman
occupation. One road, west of the Iron Gates, has been named in
connection with Trajan's route. It commenced at Uj Palanka, and ran in a
north-easterly direction to Temeswar (Rom. Tibiscum), and thence to the
ancient capital of Dacia, Sarmizegethusa (modern Varhely), whence it is
believed to have been continued to the Transylvanian slopes of the
Carpathians bordering on Moldavia. This road, which, along with all the
other remains here referred to, will be found in our historical map, was
not situated in what is now Roumania. It was joined by another starting
from Orsova, which followed the valley of the Czerna, passed the modern
baths of Mehadia (Rom. Ad Mediam), and joined the first road at
Temeswar. A third, still more to the eastward, commenced at the Bridge
of Trajan at Turnu-Severin, and traces have been found which lead to the
belief that it must have crossed Wallachia in more than one direction
and have passed through the 'Rothenthurm' pass in the Carpathians,
whilst a fourth road, with which it was probably connected, started from
the vicinity of the bridge of Constantine, near Turnu-Magurele, and is
traceable in a north-westerly direction towards the Carpathians. Other
roads have been distinctly made out in these mountains connecting
Hermannstadt, Karlsburg, Schaessburg, &c. The road on the southern bank
of the lower Danube ran along the whole course of the river, and has
been followed to the neighbourhood of Galatz; whilst in the Dobrudscha
there are still the remains of two Roman walls, one on either side of
the line of railway from Cernavoda on the Danube to Constanta (formerly
Kustendjie) on the Black Sea. As to the other archaeological remains,
they are even more numerous and better defined than the roads. At
Turnu-Magurele, close by, there are traces of a second bridge across the
Danube, known as that of Constantine, and believed to have been
constructed by that emperor. In the same neighbourhood, at Celeiu, there
have been found several interesting Roman remains, ruins of buildings in
which the colouring is still visible on the walls, and a statue of
Commodus with an inscription. At Recika, near the modern town of
Caracal, close to the river Oltu in the district of Romanati, there are
also remains of streets and houses with inscriptions; and at Slaveni,
close by, are the remains of a temple of Mithras. Again, at Ciglena or
Tiglina, near Galatz, there is an old Roman encampment; at Vodastra, not
far from Celeiu (already referred to), still older prehistoric remains
have been found, whilst at Petrosa and Buzeu, on the line of railway
between Bucarest and Galatz, Gothic and other antiquities have been
discovered.[24] Interesting but more recent relics are to be seen at
Campu-Lung, the first capital of Wallachia. At Curtea d'Ardges, the
second (that is subsequent) capital, is a beautiful cathedral, which
will be more fully described hereafter; and Tirgovistea, the third
capital, from which the seat of government was removed to Bucarest, also
presents some interesting historical remains.

[Footnote 24: We are indebted for many of those details to M. Tocilesco,
whose beautifully illustrated work, _Dacia_, &c. (Bucarest: Tipografia
Academiei Romane, 1880), contains a vast amount of information
concerning Dacian and other antiquities.]

IV.

Before proceeding to deal with a subject in connection with the
geographical position of Roumania, which has special interest for
Englishmen, a few words may be found interesting in regard to its
exceptional and variable climate.

Both the winters and summers are very trying and severe; spring is so
short as to be almost non-existent, but this is compensated for by the
long autumn, a genial season which often lasts from the middle of
September to the end of November. In summer the thermometer often
reaches 90 deg. to 95 deg. Fahrenheit in the shade, whilst in winter it
frequently falls to zero, but the annual average is about 57 deg.
Fahrenheit. Bain is not nearly so frequent as with us, and it seldom
lasts long. Comparisons have been made between Roumania and other
countries which show that whilst in England we have on the average 172
rainy days in the year, there are in Western France 152, in Germany 141,
and in Roumania only 74. Snowstorms are not frequent, there being on the
average only twelve days of snow in the year. The most trying
characteristic of the climate, however, is the cold cutting easterly
wind which sweeps over the steppes of Asiatic Russia, and often causes
life to be almost intolerable in the Roumanian plains; and another
unpleasant feature is the sudden change from heat to cold between noon
and evening during the later months of the year.

Looking generally at the physiography of Roumania, however, it will be
seen that whilst it covers an extent of country considerably in excess
of some of the small but prosperous independent States of Europe, it has
great advantages which they do not possess. Less rugged and mountainous
than Switzerland, and not so uniformly flat as Holland, its scenery
partakes of the character of both these countries. Guarded on the north
and west by the Carpathian range, and commanding the whole length of the
Danube in the south, its political position (to which further reference
will be made presently) renders it safer than Belgium, or perhaps even
than Denmark. Its soil is capable of producing, either spontaneously or
with a slight expenditure of labour, every requirement of the human
race, whether of necessity or of luxury. The grape, the peach, the
tobacco plant thrive in the open air. Its extensive forests contain most
descriptions of timber, whilst very fine salt and petroleum amongst its
mineral treasures are already worked, and there is little doubt from
the researches of chemists and metallurgists that coal, iron, sulphur,
copper, and even the precious metals are safely stored beneath the
surface. All these valuable natural productions may be readily conveyed
down the slopes of its mountains or across the plains, by short and easy
routes by land and water, to the larger watercourse which places it in
communication with the outer world; and as to the obstacles offered by
the 'Iron Gates' to the navigation of the upper Danube, these are soon
likely to disappear in an age when dynamite effects such vast
revolutions in the industrial history of nations. Add to these facts
that Roumania offers a rich field for the fisherman, that its alpine
districts are beautiful and easy of access, and that its antiquities
cannot fail to attract the attention of archaeologists; and we see
already from this brief and very superficial geographical survey that it
encloses within its boundaries the promise of a brilliant future. And
now let us turn from the natural capacities of the country to the works
and ways of man.

CHAPTER III.

THE NAVIGATION OF THE DANUBE.

The Danube--Its importance to Roumania--To Great
Britain--Statistics of British and foreign vessels trading
there--Nature of the freight--Cereals--Our imports thence compared
with those from other states--Importance of Roumania as a
maize-grower--Effect of the Russo-Turkish war on Danubian
trade--The Danubian Commission--Its history--Austria and
Roumania--The Callimaki-Catargi despatches--Alleged pretensions and
designs of Austria--Necessity for the neutrality of the
Danube--Pending negotiations.

There is perhaps no question of greater real moment to the newly erected
kingdom than the free navigation of the Danube; for whether its
possessions are limited on the southern boundary by that river, or
whether at some future time they should extend beyond it, the reader
cannot fail to see from what has preceded that the Danube is the great
artery through which, so to speak, the industrial life-blood of the
nation circulates. But if it be a matter of primary importance to
Roumania, it is hardly less so to ourselves. The greater part of the
external trade of the countries bordering on the Danube which passes in
and out of the Sulina mouth, the only navigable embouchure, is carried
on in British bottoms, as the following figures will show:--

_Tonnage entering and leaving the Danube in 1880._
____________________________________________________________________
| | | | | | | |
| |Steamers|Tonnage| Sailing |Tonnage|Total| Total |
| | | | Ships | |Ships|Tonnage|
| |________|_______|________ |_______|_____|_______|
| | | | | | | |
|British flag | 479 |408,492| 15 | 4,214| 494|412,706|
|All other nations| 242 |150,536|1,526[25]|238,312|1,768|384,848|
| |________|_______|_________|_______|_____|_______|
| | | | | | | |
| Total | 721 |559,028| 1,541 |238,526|2,262|797,554|
|_________________|________|_______|_________|_______|_____|_______|

Thus it will be seen that the carrying trade of Great Britain to and
from the Danube amounts to nearly 30,000 tons more than that of all
other nations put together. And now as regards the nature of the goods
carried. They consist outwards (from Roumania, &c.) of cereals, and
inwards of a great variety of manufactured goods. Of the former
5,394,729 quarters were exported in 1879; and it may be said generally
that Roumania receives in return almost every article of consumption in
the way of manufactured productions, and notably from this country
cottons and cotton yarn, woollens, coals, and iron.

In any year of scarcity our importations of feeding stuffs from the
Danube would become a most important factor, for in 1881 the Board of
Trade returns show the following comparative importations:--

_Imports of Cereals in 1880._

Cwts.
From United States 68,138,992
" Russia 12,830,851
" Canada 9,455,076
" India 6,458,100
" Roumania 4,355,344

All other countries, including Egypt, which is considered by no means
unimportant as a grain-producing country, sent us less cereals than
Roumania; and when we look at one species of grain, namely, maize, which
is considered equal to what is known as American mixed, and is capable
of being much more largely cultivated than at present, we find Roumania
third on the list; indeed, for some reason or other, her exports fell
off very materially last year, for in 1879 she ranked second:--

_Imports of Maize in 1880._

Cwts.
From United States 31,087,773
" Canada 3,322,327
" Roumania 1,764,482

We shall have to touch on this branch of the subject again; but if the
reader wishes to satisfy himself of the great importance to this country
of unrestricted trade on the Danube, he has only to refer to the annual
returns of the Board of Trade, and he will find that in 1876, when the
ports were closed in consequence of the last Russo-Turkish war, our
trade practically ceased, and that it has hardly yet recovered from the
effects of the stoppage.

Indeed, the question of Danubian navigation has been for some time past
recognised as one of European importance, and after the Crimean war,
when the great Powers took away from Russia a small portion of
Bessarabia abutting upon the embouchures of the Danube, an International
Commission was appointed, consisting of representatives of those Powers
and of Roumania, whose duty it was to maintain the neutrality and the
free navigation of the Danube at its entrance, for which purpose they
were authorised to levy tolls and construct works. Subsequently the term
of this commission was renewed for twelve years from 1871 (until next
year therefore), and the neutrality of works existing at the expiration
of the treaty was declared permanent. By the Treaty of San Stefano (Art.
xii.) and the subsequent Congress of Berlin, 1878, all fortresses on the
Danube were ordered to be dismantled, and men-of-war, with the exception
of guard-ships, were excluded. The rights, obligations, and prerogatives
of the International Commission were maintained intact, and (at the
Berlin Congress) its jurisdiction was extended to the Iron Gates.

This is everything of historical note that has, until quite recently,
been published with authority on the subject, but to those who are
interested either commercially or politically it has been well known
that the commission was not working smoothly, and that differences had
arisen between Austria and Roumania concerning their respective
jurisdiction. This first found public utterance in the Roumanian speech
from the throne last year, when the King said that his Government was
prepared to defend its rights to control the navigation of the Danube in
Roumanian waters, or words to that effect. What followed is contemporary
history. Austria, regarding this as an affront intended for herself,
threatened to withdraw her ambassador, and Roumania apologised. In the
meantime, however, M. Callimaki-Catargi, a former Minister of Roumania
in Paris and London, published in an unauthorised manner a long
correspondence between the Roumanian Foreign Secretary and himself,
which contained a statement of the Danubian difficulty that had been
handed to Lord Granville. It was circulated largely in France and
Roumania, and is interesting in relation to future events.[26] According
to M. Catargi, Austria has endeavoured, almost since the establishment
of the commission, to resist its action where she supposed such action
trenched upon _her_ interests and jurisdiction, whilst, on the other
hand, she has been aggressive upon the rights of her neighbours. It
appears from his statement that when it was attempted to form a
'Riverside Commission' to take the place of the original European
Commission, and keep the whole course of the Danube clear (a very
desirable object, as the reader will have seen from our description of
the Iron Gates), Austria objected to any interference with her
jurisdiction over that part of the Danube which flowed through her
territory. But when more recently the commission appointed a
sub-committee to study the lower Danube, and to report to it with such
recommendations as would ensure the carrying out of the project in its
integrity, it was found that some unseen influence had been at work to
change and pervert the entire constitution and objects of the
commission.

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