Roumania Past and Present

J >> James Samuelson >> Roumania Past and Present

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But this leads us to the dark side of the picture. The industrious
peasantry, who form the large majority, have paid for their allotted
lands, and a great many continue to buy from the indigent boyards. Many
are, however, still embarrassed, and some even in virtual servitude,
this being the result of their own indolence and misconduct. For a large
number of idle or destitute peasant holders, being unable to pledge
their land in consequence of the act just named, are forced to sell
their labour for one, two, or more years in consideration of money
payments by their landlords, such contracts being permitted by the State
and enforced by the local authorities and by custom and public opinion;
that is to say, the breach by a peasant would reduce him to starvation,
as no one would supply him with the necessaries of life. As nearly as we
have been able to ascertain, about one-third of the whole peasantry are
owners of their holdings without hypothecation, are doing well, and
buying up additional land; about the same proportion are in possession
of their holdings, but find it necessary to pledge their labour for one
year, or perhaps a somewhat longer period, whilst the remaining third
are practically serfs on their own farms.[60]

[Footnote 59: For exact particulars of peasant tenure see Appendix IV.]

[Footnote 60: Comparing this statement with the fact that the
'obligations rurales' were almost extinguished in 1880, it is clear that
the embarrassed and idle peasants must be only small holders. The
information was given to us by the gentleman best acquainted with the
history and effect of the land emancipation.]

IV.

Now as to the boyards, or old landed aristocracy. There are many wealthy
landowners, and those who manage their own estates are the most
prosperous. A large proportion, however, contract with sub-tenants to
farm the land for a fixed sum (_fermage_). Amongst these many are poor
and involved. When we were at Bucarest the 'Credit Foncier' held titles
of land to the extent of fifty millions of francs, and that probably
represented about one-third of the whole known mortgages of the country.
Since about 1870, when the rate of wages began to rise in consequence of
the formation of railways and the resulting increase in the demand for
labour, a momentous change has taken place. Improvidence and _fermage_
have sounded the knell of the old landed gentry. Their estates have in
many cases been bought up by the _fermiers_, their sub-tenants; the
peasantry have purchased considerable quantities of land in addition to
that allotted them by the State, and merchants and traders have also
obtained possession of a portion by purchase, thus laying the foundation
of an influential middle class, which at the present time can hardly be
said to exist in the country. The consequences of this change cannot
fail to be the development of agriculture, provident landowners, and the
general prosperity of the entire nation.

We hesitate somewhat to draw any further comparisons between the past
land reforms of Roumania and those in progress in Ireland or impending
in Great Britain; but certain striking contrasts force themselves upon
our attention. In Roumania a _portion_ of the soil was taken from the
boyard at a fixed price and sold to the peasant, without delay or
litigation: the results being, first, an immediate improvement in the
condition of the peasant, and his ultimate independence and prosperity;
secondly, an exposure of the uselessness and helplessness of the
indolent boyard landlord so soon as he was forced to attend to his
duties and pay for his labour; in many cases his rapid decadence and
extinction. For Ireland, under similar conditions, an Act is passed by
which, to some extent in the direct interest of the Irish landlords, and
indirectly for the protection of those in Great Britain, the old
conditions of landlord and tenant are sought to be retained and amended,
or the land to be transferred by sale, involving what are practically
lawsuits with their appeals and all their delays, or an interminable
period (about thirty-five years as against fifteen) for repayment. In
Roumania the _people_, through their parliament, fixed the conditions of
transfer, and the boyards were forced to submit after centuries of
exaction and tyranny; in Britain the Parliament, consisting largely of
landowners and persons opposed to all reforms, and from which the
representatives of the aggrieved parties were almost entirely excluded,
has groped about for a remedy, thwarted and threatened at every step by
an irresponsible body of legislators, who have for the time being
resolved themselves into a trades union of landowners; and masses of the
peasantry have been driven into the roads. What the future result of the
Irish land reform will be it is impossible to predict. We can only hope
for the best.

We have already said that the Roumanian peasant is old-fashioned and
slow to move, but he has also excellent qualities. He possesses great
hardihood and endurance, and will work, not very constantly it is true,
during the hottest weather from five a.m. to eight p.m. with a couple of
hours for meals and rest during the heat of the day. On the other hand
he will face the keenest cold with a bared breast, and is satisfied with
mamaliga as his daily food. As we have already said, the women work
harder even than the men, besides doing a great deal of work at home,
which only Roumanian women are able to perform.[61] The children work
also, beginning often at five years of age, but they attend school
during the winter from October to April. As we shall see presently, the
progress of education is slow; for although there is supposed to be a
school in every village, many of them are closed, and there is a great
want of teachers. Education is, however, progressing steadily, but it
will be a generation or two before every peasant is able to read and
write. As in the town, so in the country, there are a great many fast
days, which the peasants do not, however, always observe. During the
week days they are abstemious, but, although they do not get drunk, they
spend their Sunday in drinking, and one of the greatest curses of the
country has been the substitution of alcohol prepared from grain for the
old plum-spirit which was formerly drunk and which was much less
injurious in its after-effects. All things considered, however, the
future of the peasant is not dark. If he is at all industrious, he owns
his farm, and by sobriety and diligence his possessions are increasing
annually; the gradual spread of elementary and technical instruction, of
which the foundations are firmly laid in the country, will open his eyes
to the advantages which he enjoys; and soon he will appreciate the fact,
already known to all enlightened persons in Roumania, that upon the
labours and exertions of the peasantry depend not only their own
fortunes, but the future progress and prosperity of the fatherland.[62]

[Footnote 61: Besides making clothes for their families, and costumes
for the ladies of the cities, &c., the Roumanian women make beautiful
rugs, mats, and even Carpets of variegated wool.]

[Footnote 62: Nothing shows the importance of the agricultural interest
in Roumania so effectively as an analysis of the occupations of the
people. This is thoroughly trustworthy, as it is computed from the
number of taxpayers, and the following is a table condensed from the
data supplied to us by the authorities at Bucarest:--

Agriculturists 684,168 heads of families
Artisans and labourers 83,061
Traders 30,117
Officials (_fonctionnaires_) 22,811
Professors and teachers 6,066
Medical and legal professions and druggists 995
Artists (meaning probably persons engaged
in the arts) 2,156
Priests, monks, and _religieuses_ 18,452
Various 125,815
-------
Of the total heads of families 973,941, seventy per cent.
therefore are agriculturists.
]

CHAPTER VII.

EDUCATIONAL--ETHNOGRAPHICAL.

Educational laws--Statistics--Cost of instruction to the
State--(Note: Comparison with Great Britain)--- Backward condition
of education--Imperfect state of university instruction--Roumanian
youth in Paris and elsewhere--Impolicy of the system--Pecuniary
loss to the country--Moral drawbacks--Edgar Quinet's
views--Conflicting opinions in Roumania--Need for the encouragement
of home instruction--The Asyle Helene--A remarkable institution for
girls--Its foundation and history--Dr. Davila again--Princess
Elena--Constitution of the school--Classes and subjects
taught--High standard for the training of teachers--Proficiency of
the higher pupils--Marriages from the Asyle--How
negotiated--Wretched payment of state teachers--Other schools and
institutions--A few ethnographical considerations--Descent
illustrated philologically--Latin roots in the Roumanian
language--Examples--Their significance--Magyar roots, indicative of
foreign domination--Examples--Roumanian music, perpetuates the old
days of oppression--Dances--Gerando's description of an historical
dance--(Note: Reference to works on the subject).

I.

Theoretically education in Roumania is everything that can be desired;
practically it is still far otherwise. The Constitution of 1866, article
23, declares that primary instruction shall be compulsory and
gratuitous, and that primary schools shall, by degrees, be established
in every commune.

In 1877-8 there were two universities (Bucarest and Jassy), 96 private
schools, 55 secondary and normal, 26 technical and special; 1,242 boys',
265 girls', and 628 mixed primary schools. The total number of scholars
set down as attending all these institutions was 119,015 (95,765 boys
and 23,250 girls), and the total number of teachers 4,486. The whole
amount of money expended on education in that year, from State,
religious, municipal, district, and commercial sources, was rather over
260,000_l._ In 1881 the total amount set aside by the State for all
purposes of education and _public worship_ during 1882 was 450,000_l._
These figures show, in a population exceeding five millions, 2,412
schools with an average attendance of nearly 50 scholars each, who were
being educated at a cost of about 2_l._ 3_s._ per head, including those
in universities, training, and all schools of every description; but the
actual cost of the children taught in primary schools only was about
1_l._ 8_s._ per head.[63]

We refrain from criticising these figures, for they do not represent the
present state of education. Many of the village schools, we were told on
undoubted authority, are closed, and the attendance at others is largely
increased. Besides collecting the most authentic information, we visited
schools of every kind, some more than once, sometimes alone and
unexpectedly, at others accompanied by persons in authority, normal,
primary, secondary, commercial, and district schools, and the conclusion
arrived at was by no means favourable to the _present_ general state of
education, although there is no doubt that there are many schools, well
conducted by able and zealous teachers, and that the system will become
developed and improved in the course of time. A few facts will suffice
to confirm this statement. In regard to higher education, there are said
to have been in 1878 in the two universities 61 teachers and 508
students. The Roumanian youth do not, however, as a rule receive their
higher education in their own country, and it is computed that from
seven hundred to a thousand of them are always being educated abroad,
and chiefly in Paris. This is not to be wondered at, for there are no
suitable facilities at home, and amongst thoughtful men it is a source
of great anxiety for the future welfare of the country. Looking at the
matter first in a pecuniary light, and taking the lowest estimate, the
cost of educating seven hundred young men such as those who are sent
abroad must be at the least 80,000_l._ or 90,000_l._ annually--we are
sure this is considerably below the mark--whilst the total expenditure
of the two universities in Roumania was, in 1878, about 22,000_l._! If,
instead of sending this large sum of money to Paris and other
educational centres, it were expended at home, it would be the means of
attracting to Roumania a class of teachers very different from many of
those who are at present dignified with the title of professors. This
was the opinion expressed to us by men of sound judgment and
discrimination in the country, and we are not prepared to differ from
them. But there is another and a still graver danger to the country
arising out of the system. To send a youth from home, withdrawing him
from the watchful care of his parents at the most dangerous period of
his life, namely, between the ages of seventeen and twenty-one, is of
itself a doubtful proceeding; to send him to Paris is in many cases
certain ruin. This is not a mere hastily formed opinion, and probably
the expression of it may not find a welcome in every quarter. But it is
historically true. No one has written a more flattering account of the
Roumanians than Edgar Quinet.[64] Writing in 1857, he touches with as
much delicacy as possible upon their defects and shortcomings, and hints
that their vices are copied from the French; and he goes on to say:[65]
'The sons of the boyards come to complete their education with us....
The danger for these young minds, which are exposed without control to
so great a fascination, is that even our vices appear to them to be
sanctioned' (_consacres_). It is true he does not discountenance a
system which brings grist to the mill of the French academical
institutions, but warning them against the pitfalls of Paris life he
says: 'Let them continue to visit us.' Well, they have continued to
visit them for twenty-five years longer, and if the reader would know
the result he must enquire of the Roumanians themselves. No doubt
opinions differ. There are persons whose views are entitled to great
respect, and who approve of this sending of the youth abroad in
preference to letting them obtain an imperfect education at home,
speaking with satisfaction of sacrifices which are made by persons with
straitened means to secure a polite education for their children. On the
other hand the views of professional men and of men of the world largely
predominate in the opposite direction. Omitting what were doubtless
exaggerations, such as that 80 per cent. of the youths who go to Paris
return with a perfect acquaintance with the French language, the
_cancan_, and nothing more, we are assured that a large proportion fail
to derive such an amount of benefit as to justify the outlay; that they
acquire French vices and luxurious habits; and that on their return they
do not hesitate to express their distaste for home and home
occupations.[66] Education abroad, we were told, is incompatible with
true patriotism. As already stated, these views may be exaggerated; but
when the drain upon the country which necessarily results from the
system is borne in mind, and the way in which it militates against the
engagement of suitable instructors in Roumania, it is well worth the
consideration of all true patriots (and the Roumanians pride themselves
upon being so) whether they should not in future encourage their own
educational institutions in preference to those of other countries; and
this we say, notwithstanding the fact that of late years youths have in
some cases been sent to our English universities and public schools
rather than to those of the gay city. In England these considerations
weigh so seriously with the heads of families that the movement is
progressing rapidly for bringing the highest form of education as
closely as possible to the doors of the parents, as witness the recent
establishment of universities and colleges in Manchester, Leeds,
Liverpool, and Wales. And should there be any doubt as to the
feasibility of such a reform, it can be solved without going beyond the
limits of the Roumanian capital, where there is an educational
establishment for girls which is as unique as it is well conducted.

[Footnote 63: _Statistica din Romania_, Ministeriu de Interne,
Bucuresci, 1881 (State Printing Office); and _Gotha Almanack_, 1882. It
may be interesting to compare the outlay in Roumania with that of Great
Britain. Last year our State expenditure was 2,683,958_l._ against about
110,000_l._ in Roumania, for primary instruction only. (See
_Statistica_, pp. 13 and 22: the amount in lei or francs is 3,650,698.)
The population of the United Kingdom is about seven times that of
Roumania, and the average attendance of children in 1880 was 3,155,534.
This gives about 17_s._ per head for _State_ aid, without reference to
school rates, which brings the total cost for each child in Great
Britain to 2_l._ 2_s._ In Roumania it is 1_l._ 8_s._ as above.]

[Footnote 64: _Oeuvres completes_, vol. vi.]

[Footnote 65: Pp. 103 _et seq._]

[Footnote 66: We heard similar complaints in Transylvania.]

II.

The 'Asyle Helene' at Bucarest, although it is nominally a foundling
institution, really presents many educational advantages which are only
to be found in the ladies' colleges of England and the United States. A
large proportion of the scholars are foundlings or orphans; but many pay
for their instruction, and some of the girls are the daughters of
parents of acknowledged position in society. The school was originally
what it still professes to be, an asylum for foundlings, which was
conducted in a private house belonging to Dr. Davila, who is still the
active spirit in the institution. At that time only forty children were
educated in it. In 1862 the Princess Elene Cuza, a lady of great virtue
and benevolence, placed herself at the head of the institution, and in
1869 the present building was erected. If the Agricultural College with
its grounds is to be admired, much more so is the Asyle Helene. It is a
palatial building which stands upon an eminence, is surrounded by
beautiful plantations, and approached by fine avenues, whilst its
educational arrangements are as excellent as the institution is
beneficent. The Queen is its patroness, and she takes great interest in
its success. It accommodates 230 girls from nine to nineteen years of
age, most if not all of whom live in the institution, and twenty little
children who are educated on the 'Froebel system.' The pupils attend
four primary classes, and then proceed either to the five higher girls'
classes, or to a technical school (_atelier_), also in the same
building, whilst a good many are trained as teachers. The ordinary
course of instruction lasts five years, to which one year is added for
the last-named class of scholars. The subjects taught in the four
primary classes are Roumanian language and history, writing, arithmetic,
drawing, music, the elements of physical science, sewing, and
embroidery, whilst the instruction advances further and further until in
the fifth girls' class (the ninth in the school) the girls are taught
Roumanian, French and German literature, universal history and
geography, drawing from nature and models, designs for embroidery,
geometry and perspective, natural history, mineralogy, chemistry, vocal
music, needlework, bookkeeping, &c., and in the highest class of all
(that for teachers) there are added geology, physiology, cosmography,
and Italian, in addition to French and German. The collections and
appliances to facilitate instruction in these subjects are excellent,
consisting of chemical and physical laboratories, a small museum of
natural history, geology, &c., a library, workrooms, an artists' studio,
a theatre where the children give performances and recitations, and a
simple gymnastic apparatus. No doubt many of the pupils limit the range
of subjects in which they try to excel, but what we can vouch for after
twice visiting the school with Dr. Davila, and seeing the pupils at the
Asyle as well as in their summer quarters, a convent in the Carpathians,
is that they are well taught, and that some of them would be a credit to
the most advanced students in any school we have visited. The readiness
with which they answer all questions, whether of a practical or
theoretical nature, in a language which is not their own, is as
surprising as it is creditable. Many of course belong to a humble rank
in life, and their limited intelligence renders them fit only to become
domestic servants, the avocation for which therefore they are trained;
others go out as teachers in State and other schools, whilst several
already referred to become ornaments to the society in which they
afterwards move. All are well fed and clothed, and appeared to be happy
and grateful for their benefits. Many of the girls are married from the
institution, the mode of proceeding being one which is not quite
consonant with our English notions on the subject. A teacher or some
other young man applies to the committee for an introduction to a
suitable girl, and if they are satisfied with his respectability and his
means of maintaining a wife, they ascertain which of the girls desires
to be married, and after the young couple have met twice or three times,
if they like each other a marriage is negotiated (just as in the case of
the royal families of Europe)! The marriage takes place in the Asyle,
the bride receiving her trousseau and a very respectable little dowry,
and the event is always the occasion of great rejoicing, in which Dr.
Davila does not fail to take a prominent part. These marriages, he told
us, have in nearly every case turned out happy ones, far more frequently
in proportion to their number than similar events outside of the
institution.

The teachers in the Asyle Helene are fairly well paid, the higher class
receiving about 50_l._ per annum, board and lodging; but this is by no
means the case with school-teachers generally in Roumania. We closed our
ears to a great many things that savoured of scandal during our visit to
the country, but this was one thing which it was impossible to ignore.
So wretched indeed is the pay of the State teachers that they push on
the children of those parents who give them employment as private tutors
in order to eke out a livelihood, to the neglect of the other scholars.

The Asyle Helene is supported partly by endowments and partly by State
aid, and is managed by a committee. In connection therewith is also a
boys' school at Penteleimon, founded by the Ghika family, and remodelled
by King Charles in 1868, to which a hospital of invalids is attached.

The girls' training school of the State at Bucarest is an admirable
institution, presided over by an accomplished and energetic lady, who
expressed great regret that the want of sufficient funds prevented them
from competing with the Asyle Helene, which is acknowledged to be of a
higher order.

There is also a German 'Realschule' in Bucarest, founded by a benevolent
German, at which the teaching is all that can be desired; but as to the
State normal school for young men intended as country teachers--well, we
refrain from expressing any opinion of our own. A learned friend hinted
something about the application of dynamite to the whole concern; and if
it could be done without injury to human life, perhaps that would be the
best course to adopt.

The one fact in connection with the state of education in Roumania,
however, which forces itself upon our notice, is the question of
teaching the youth of the country at home.

Primary instruction is sure to progress; it rests to a large extent with
the Government, and in the course of time teachers will be forthcoming
to carry out the excellent system in its integrity; but as to applied
science and higher education generally, that depends upon parents
themselves; and, modifying a well-known saying, it resolves itself into
the question of 'Roumanians for Roumania, or Roumanians for France?'

III.

And this reminds us of a matter to which we must make a brief reference,
though it will be more fully treated hereafter, namely, the
ethnographical character of the people of Roumania; for whilst it is
unfortunate that in practical everyday life and in politics they do not
at present rely sufficiently upon their own internal resources, there is
no doubt that theoretically they are very sensitive and proud of their
nationality. To a stranger visiting the country for a brief period this
is the most perplexing question of all; but the perusal of its history,
and a careful consideration of the opinions of well-known writers, bring
into prominence certain facts which cannot fail to be interesting. From
the number of tribes and nationalities by which the country has at
various times been overrun, it is impossible for an unprejudiced thinker
to come to any other conclusion than that, like ourselves, the
Roumanians are a mixed race, although the Latin undoubtedly
predominates; and to the evidence of history may be added that of the
language and customs of the country. The language not only presents a
variety arising out of the domination of the various races, but in some
respects indicates the nature of that domination, and the customs have a
like significance. As a general rule the Roumanian language is derived
from the Latin, but there are many words of Turkish, modern Greek,
Polish, and Hungarian or Magyar origin. Amongst the Latin words are the
names of many localities and towns which have evidently existed since
the Roman period, as witness:--

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