The Life of George Washington, Vol. 2 (of 5)
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[Footnote 62: The author was an eye-witness of this
skirmish.]
About eleven in the morning, information reached General Washington
that a large column with many field pieces, had taken a road leading
from Kennet's Square, directly up the country, and had entered the
great valley road, down which they were marching to the upper fords of
the Brandywine. This information was given by Colonel Ross of
Pennsylvania, who was in their rear, and estimated their numbers at
five thousand men.
On receiving this information, Washington is said to have determined
to detach Sullivan and Lord Stirling to engage the left division of
the British army, and with the residue of his troops, to cross Chadd's
Ford in person, and attack Knyphausen. Before this plan could be
executed, counter intelligence was received inducing an opinion that
the movement of the British on their left was a feint, and that the
column under Lord Cornwallis, after making demonstrations of crossing
the Brandywine above its forks, had marched down the southern side of
that river to reunite itself with Knyphausen.
Not long after the first communication was made by Colonel Ross,
information was received from Colonel Bland of the cavalry, which
produced some doubt respecting the strength of this column. He saw
only two brigades; but the dust appeared to rise in their rear for a
considerable distance. A major of the militia came in, who alleged
that he left the forks of the Brandywine so late in the day that it
was supposed Lord Cornwallis must have passed them by that time, had
he continued his march in that direction, and who asserted that no
enemy had appeared in that quarter. Some light horsemen who had been
sent to reconnoitre the road, returned with the same information.
The uncertainty produced by this contradictory intelligence was at
length removed; and about two in the afternoon, it was ascertained
that the column led by Lord Cornwallis, after making a circuit of
about seventeen miles, had crossed the river above its forks, and was
advancing in great force.
A change of disposition was immediately made. The divisions commanded
by Sullivan, Stirling, and Stephen, took new ground, advanced farther
up the Brandywine, and fronted the British column marching down that
river. The division commanded by Wayne remained at Chadd's Ford, to
keep Knyphausen in check; in which service Maxwell was to co-operate.
Greene's division, accompanied by General Washington in person, formed
a reserve, and took a central position between the right and left
wings.
The divisions detached against Lord Cornwallis formed hastily on an
advantageous piece of ground, above Birmingham Meeting House, with
their left near the Brandywine, and having both flanks covered by a
thick wood. The artillery was judiciously posted, and the disposition
of the whole was well made. Unfortunately, Sullivan's division, in
taking its ground, made too large a circuit, and was scarcely formed
when the attack commenced.
[Sidenote: The American army defeated at Brandywine, and retreat to
Chester.]
On perceiving the Americans, the British army was formed in order of
battle; and, about half past four, the action began. It was kept up
warmly for some time. The American right first gave way, and by its
flight exposed the flank of the remaining divisions to a galling fire.
The line continued to break from the right, and, in a short time, was
completely routed. The right wing made some attempts to rally, but,
being briskly charged, again broke, and the flight became general.
On the commencement of the action on the right, General Washington
pressed forward with Greene, to the support of that wing; but, before
his arrival, its rout was complete, and he could only check the
pursuit. For this purpose, the 10th Virginia regiment commanded by
Colonel Stevens, and a regiment of Pennsylvania commanded by Colonel
Stewart, neither of which had been in action, were posted
advantageously on the road taken by the defeated army. The impression
made by the fire of these regiments, and the approach of night,
induced Sir William Howe, after dispersing them, to give over the
pursuit.
When the American right was found to be fully engaged with Lord
Cornwallis, Knyphausen made real dispositions for crossing the river.
Chadd's Ford was defended by an intrenchment and battery, with three
field pieces, and a howitzer. After some resistance, the work was
forced; and, the defeat of the right being known, the left wing also
withdrew from its ground. The whole army retreated that night to
Chester, and the next day to Philadelphia.
The loss sustained by the Americans in this action has been estimated
at three hundred killed, and six hundred wounded. Between three and
four hundred, principally the wounded, were made prisoners.
As must ever be the case in new raised armies, unused to danger, and
from which undeserving officers have not been expelled, their conduct
was not uniform. Some regiments, especially those which had served the
preceding campaign, maintained their ground with the firmness and
intrepidity of veterans, while others gave way as soon as they were
pressed. The authors of a very correct history of the war,[63]
speaking of this action, say, "a part of their troops, among whom were
particularly numbered some Virginia[64] regiments, and the whole corps
of artillery, behaved exceedingly well in some of the actions of this
day, exhibiting a degree of order, firmness, and resolution, and
preserving such a countenance in extremely sharp service, as would not
have discredited veterans. Some other bodies of their troops behaved
very badly."[65]
[Footnote 63: Annual Register.]
[Footnote 64: The third Virginia regiment commanded by
Colonel Marshall, which had performed extremely severe duty
in the campaign of 1776, was placed in a wood on the right,
and in front of Woodford's brigade, and Stephen's division.
Though attacked by much superior numbers, it maintained its
position without losing an inch of ground, until both its
flanks were turned, its ammunition nearly expended, and more
than half the officers, and one third of the soldiers were
killed and wounded. Colonel Marshall, whose horse had
received two balls, then retired in good order to resume his
position on the right of his division; but it had already
retreated.]
[Footnote 65: Deboore's brigade broke first; and, on an
inquiry into his conduct being directed, he resigned. A
misunderstanding existed between him and Sullivan, on whose
right he was stationed.]
The official letter of Sir William Howe stated his loss at rather less
than one hundred killed, and four hundred wounded. As the Americans
sustained very little injury in the retreat, this inequality of loss
can be ascribed only to the inferiority of their arms. Many of their
muskets were scarcely fit for service; and, being of unequal calibre,
their cartridges could not be so well fitted, and, consequently, their
fire could not do as much execution as that of the enemy. This radical
defect was felt in all the operations of the army.
From the ardour with which the Commander-in-chief had inspired his
troops before this action, it is probable that the conflict would have
been more severe, had the intelligence respecting the movement on the
left of the British army been less contradictory. Raw troops, changing
their ground in the moment of action, and attacked in the agitation of
moving, are easily thrown into confusion. This was the critical
situation of a part of Sullivan's division, and was the cause of the
right's breaking before Greene could be brought up to support it;
after which, it was impossible to retrieve the fortune of the day.
But had the best disposition of the troops been made at the time,
which subsequent intelligence would suggest, the action could not have
terminated in favour of the Americans. Their inferiority in numbers,
in discipline, and in arms, was too great to leave them a probable
prospect of victory. A battle, however, was not to be avoided. The
opinion of the public, and of congress, demanded it. The loss of
Philadelphia, without an attempt to preserve it, would have excited
discontents which, in the United States, might be productive of
serious mischief; and action, though attended with defeat, provided
the loss be not too great, must improve an army in which, not only the
military talents, but even the courage, of officers, some of them of
high rank, remained to be ascertained.
Among the wounded was the Marquis de la Fayette, and Brigadier General
Woodford.
The battle of Brandywine was not considered as decisive by congress,
the General, or the army. The opinion was carefully cherished that the
British had gained only the ground; and that their loss was still more
considerable than had been sustained by the Americans. Congress
appeared determined to risk another battle for the metropolis of
America. Far from discovering any intention to change their place of
session, they passed vigorous resolutions for reinforcing the army,
and directed General Washington to give the necessary orders for
completing the defences of the Delaware.
{September 12.}
From Chester, the army marched through Darby, over the Schuylkill
bridge, to its former ground, near the falls of that river. General
Greene's division, which, having been less in action, was more entire
than any other, covered the rear; and the corps of Maxwell remained at
Chester until the next day, as a rallying point for the small parties,
and straggling soldiers, who might yet be in the neighbourhood.
Having allowed his army one day for repose and refreshment, General
Washington recrossed the Schuylkill, and proceeded on the Lancaster
road, with the intention of risking another engagement.
Sir William Howe passed the night of the 11th on the field of battle.
On the succeeding day, he detached Major General Grant with two
brigades to Concord meeting-house; and on the 13th, Lord Cornwallis
joined General Grant, and marched towards Chester. Another detachment
took possession of Wilmington; to which place the sick and wounded
were conveyed.
To prevent a sudden movement to Philadelphia by the lower road, the
bridge over the Schuylkill was loosened from its moorings, and General
Armstrong was directed, with the Pennsylvania militia to guard the
passes over that river.
On the 15th, the American army, intending to gain the left of the
British, reached the Warren tavern, on the Lancaster road,
twenty-three miles from Philadelphia. Intelligence was received, early
next morning, that Howe was approaching in two columns. It being too
late to reach the ground he had intended to occupy, Washington
resolved to meet and engage him in front.
{September 16.}
Both armies prepared, with great alacrity, for battle. The advanced
parties had met, and were beginning to skirmish, when they were
separated by a heavy rain, which, becoming more and more violent,
rendered the retreat of the Americans a measure of absolute necessity.
The inferiority of their arms never brought them into such imminent
peril as on this occasion. Their gun-locks not being well secured,
their muskets soon became unfit for use. Their cartridge-boxes had
been so inartificially constructed, as not to protect their ammunition
from the tempest. Their cartridges were soon damaged; and this
mischief was the more serious, because very many of the soldiers were
without bayonets.
[Sidenote: After a slight skirmish compelled again to retire, cross
the Schuylkill, and proceed to French Creek.]
The army being thus rendered unfit for action, the design of giving
battle was reluctantly abandoned, and a retreat commenced. It was
continued all the day, and great part of the night, through a cold and
most distressing rain, and very deep roads. A few hours before day,
the troops halted at the Yellow Springs, where their arms and
ammunition were examined, and the alarming fact was disclosed, that
scarcely a musket in a regiment could be discharged, and scarcely one
cartridge in a box was fit for use. This state of things suggested the
precaution of moving to a still greater distance, in order to refit
their arms, obtain a fresh supply of ammunition, and revive the
spirits of the army. The General therefore retired to Warwick furnace,
on the south branch of French Creek, where ammunition and a few
muskets might be obtained in time to dispute the passage of the
Schuylkill, and make yet another effort to save Philadelphia.
The extreme severity of the weather had entirely stopped the British
army. During two days, General Howe made no other movement than to
unite his columns.
From French Creek, General Wayne was detached with his division, into
the rear of the British, with orders to join General Smallwood; and,
carefully concealing himself and his movements, to seize every
occasion which this march might offer, of engaging them to advantage.
Meanwhile, General Washington crossed the Schuylkill at Parker's
ferry, and encamped on both sides of Perkyomy Creek.
{September 19.}
[Sidenote: General Wayne surprised, and after a sharp action compelled
to retreat.]
General Wayne lay in the woods near the entrance of the road from
Darby into that leading to Lancaster, about three miles in the rear of
the left wing of the British troops encamped at Trydruffin, where he
believed himself to be perfectly secure. But the country was so
extensively disaffected that Sir William Howe received accurate
accounts of his position and of his force. Major General Gray was
detached to surprise him, and effectually accomplished his purpose.
About eleven, in the night of the 20th, his pickets, driven in with
charged bayonets, gave the first intimation of Gray's approach. Wayne
instantly formed his division; and while his right sustained a fierce
assault, directed a retreat by the left, under cover of a few
regiments who, for a short time, withstood the violence of the shock.
In his letter to the Commander-in-chief, he says that they gave the
assailants some well-directed fires which must have done considerable
execution; and that, after retreating from the ground on which the
engagement commenced, they formed again, at a small distance from the
scene of action; but that both parties drew off without renewing the
conflict. He states his loss at about one hundred and fifty[66] killed
and wounded. The British accounts admit, on their part, a loss of only
seven.
[Footnote 66: The British accounts represent the American
loss to have been much more considerable. It probably
amounted to at least three hundred men.]
When the attack commenced, General Smallwood, who was on his march to
join Wayne, a circumstance entirely unexpected by General Gray, was
within less than a mile of him; and, had he commanded regulars, might
have given a very different turn to the night. But his militia thought
only of their own safety; and, having fallen in with a party returning
from the pursuit of Wayne, fled in confusion with the loss of only one
man.
Some severe animadversions on this unfortunate affair having been made
in the army, General Wayne demanded a court martial, which, after
investigating his conduct, was unanimously of opinion, "that he had
done every thing to be expected from an active, brave, and vigilant
officer;" and acquitted him with honour.
{September 21.}
Having secured his rear, by compelling Wayne to take a greater
distance, Sir William Howe marched along the valley road to the
Schuylkill, and encamped on the bank of that river, from the Fatland
ford up to French Creek, along the front of the American army. To
secure his right from being turned, General Washington again changed
his position, and encamped with his left near, but above the British
right.
[Sidenote: Washington marches to Pottsgrove.]
{September 22.}
General Howe now relinquished his plan of bringing Washington to
another battle; and, thinking it adviseable, perhaps, to transfer the
seat of war to the neighbourhood of his ships, determined to cross the
Schuylkill, and take possession of Philadelphia. In the afternoon, he
ordered one detachment to cross at Fatland ford which was on his
right, and another to cross at Gordon's ford, on his left, and to take
possession of the heights commanding them. These orders were executed
without much difficulty, and the American troops placed to defend
these fords were easily dispersed.
This service being effected, the whole army marched by its right,
about midnight, and crossing at Fatland without opposition, proceeded
a considerable distance towards Philadelphia, and encamped, with its
left near Sweed's ford, and its right on the Manatawny road, having
Stony run in its front.
It was now apparent that only immediate victory could save
Philadelphia from the grasp of the British general, whose situation
gave him the option of either taking possession of that place, or
endeavouring to bring on another engagement. If, therefore, a battle
must certainly be risked to save the capital, it would be necessary to
attack the enemy.
Public opinion, which a military chief finds too much difficulty in
resisting, and the opinion of congress required a battle; but, on a
temperate consideration of circumstances, Washington came to the wise
decision of avoiding one for the present.
His reasons for this decision were conclusive. Wayne and Smallwood had
not yet joined the army. The continental troops ordered from
Peekskill, who had been detained for a time by an incursion from New
York, were approaching; and a reinforcement of Jersey militia, under
General Dickenson, was also expected.
To these powerful motives against risking an engagement, other
considerations of great weight were added, founded on the condition of
his soldiers. An army, manoeuvring in an open country, in the face of
a very superior enemy, is unavoidably exposed to excessive fatigue,
and extreme hardship. The effect of these hardships was much increased
by the privations under which the American troops suffered. While in
almost continual motion, wading deep rivers, and encountering every
vicissitude of the seasons, they were without tents, nearly without
shoes, or winter clothes, and often without food.
A council of war concurred in the opinion the Commander-in-chief had
formed, not to march against the enemy, but to allow his harassed
troops a few days for repose, and to remain on his present ground
until the expected reinforcements should arrive.
Immediately after the battle of Brandywine, the distressed situation
of the army had been represented to congress, who had recommended it
to the executive of Pennsylvania to seize the cloths and other
military stores in the ware houses of Philadelphia, and, after
granting certificates expressing their value, to convey them to a
place of safety. The executive, being unwilling to encounter the odium
of this strong measure, advised that the extraordinary powers of the
Commander-in-chief should be used on the occasion. Lieutenant Colonel
Hamilton, one of the General's aids, a young gentleman already in high
estimation for his talents and zeal, was employed on this delicate
business. "Your own prudence," said the General, in a letter to him
while in Philadelphia, "will point out the least exceptionable means
to be pursued; but remember, delicacy and a strict adherence to the
ordinary mode of application must give place to our necessities. We
must, if possible, accommodate the soldiers with such articles as they
stand in need of, or we shall have just reason to apprehend the most
injurious and alarming consequences from the approaching season."
All the efforts, however, of this very active officer could not obtain
a supply, in any degree, adequate to the pressing and increasing wants
of the army.
[Sidenote: General Howe takes possession of Philadelphia.]
[Sidenote: Congress removes to Lancaster.]
Colonel Hamilton was also directed to cause the military stores which
had been previously collected to a large amount in Philadelphia, and
the vessels which were lying at the wharves, to be removed up the
Delaware. This duty was executed with so much vigilance, that very
little public property fell, with the city, into the hands of the
British general, who entered it on the 26th of September. The members
of congress separated on the eighteenth, in the evening, and
reassembled at Lancaster on the twenty-seventh of the same month.
From the 25th of August, when the British army landed at the Head of
Elk, until the 26th of September when it entered Philadelphia, the
campaign had been active, and the duties of the American general
uncommonly arduous. The best English writers bestow high encomiums on
Sir William Howe for his military skill, and masterly movements during
this period. At Brandywine especially, Washington is supposed to have
been "outgeneraled, more outgeneraled than in any action during the
war." If all the operations of this trying period be examined, and the
means in possession of both be considered, the American chief will
appear, in no respect, inferior to his adversary, or unworthy of the
high place assigned to him in the opinions of his countrymen. With an
army decidedly inferior, not only in numbers, but in every military
requisite except courage, in an open country, he employed his enemy
near thirty days in advancing about sixty miles. In this time he
fought one general action; and, though defeated, was able to
reassemble the same undisciplined, unclothed, and almost unfed army;
and, the fifth day afterwards, again to offer battle. When the armies
were separated by a storm which involved him in the most distressing
circumstances, he extricated himself from them, and still maintained a
respectable and imposing countenance.
The only advantage he is supposed to have given was at the battle of
Brandywine; and that was produced by the contrariety and uncertainty
of the intelligence received. A general must be governed by his
intelligence, and must regulate his measures by his information. It is
his duty to obtain correct information; and among the most valuable
traits of a military character, is the skill to select those means
which will obtain it. Yet the best selected means are not always
successful; and, in a new army, where military talent has not been
well tried by the standard of experience, the general is peculiarly
exposed to the chance of employing not the best instruments. In a
country, too, which is covered with wood, precise information of the
numbers composing different columns is to be gained with difficulty.
It has been said "that the Americans do not appear to have made all
the use that might be expected of the advantages which the country
afforded for harassing and impeding the British army."
In estimating this objection, it ought to be recollected that General
Smallwood was directed, with the militia of Maryland and Delaware,
supported by a regiment of continental troops, to hang on and harass
the rear of the enemy: that General Maxwell, with a select corps
consisting of a thousand men, was ordered to seize every occasion to
annoy him on his march: that General Wayne, with his division, was
afterwards detached to unite with Smallwood, and command the whole
force collected in the rear, which would have been very respectable.
If the militia did not assemble in the numbers expected, or effect the
service allotted to them, their failure is not attributable to General
Washington. His calls on them had been early and energetic; and the
state of his army did not admit of his making larger detachments from
it to supply the place they had been designed to fill.
Loud complaints had been made against General Maxwell by the officers
of his corps; and a court was ordered to inquire into his conduct, by
whom he was acquitted. Whether that officer omitted to seize the
proper occasions to annoy the enemy, or the cautious and compact
movements of Sir William Howe afforded none, can not be easily
ascertained. General Washington felt the loss of Morgan, and wrote
pressingly to Gates, after his success against Burgoyne, to restore
him that officer, with his regiment, as soon as possible.
CHAPTER IX.
Measures to cut off the communication between the British
army and fleet.... Battle of Germantown.... Measures to
intercept supplies to Philadelphia.... Attack on fort
Mifflin.... On Red Bank.... The Augusta blows up.... Fort
Mifflin evacuated.... Fort Mercer evacuated.... The British
open the communication with their fleet.... Washington urged
to attack Philadelphia.... General Howe marches out to
Chestnut Hill.... Returns to Philadelphia.... General
Washington goes into winter quarters.
{1777}
{September.}
[Sidenote: Measures taken to prevent a communication between the
British army in Philadelphia and their fleet.]
Philadelphia being lost, General Washington sought to make its
occupation inconvenient and insecure, by rendering it inaccessible to
the British fleet. With this design, works had been erected on a low
marshy island in the Delaware, near the junction of the Schuylkill,
which, from the nature of its soil, was called Mud Island. On the
opposite shore of Jersey, at a place called Red Bank, a fort had also
been constructed which was defended with heavy artillery. In the deep
channel between, or under cover of these batteries, several ranges of
frames had been sunk, to which, from their resemblance to that
machine, the name of chevaux-de-frise had been given. These frames
were so strong and heavy as to be destructive of any ship which might
strike against them, and were sunk in such a depth of water as
rendered it equally difficult to weigh them or cut them through; no
attempt to raise them, or to open the channel in any manner could be
successful until the command of the shores on both sides should be
obtained.