Outlines of a Mechanical Theory of Storms
T >> T. Bassnett >> Outlines of a Mechanical Theory of Storms"At a meeting of the American Association, convened at Cleveland,
Professor Loomis presented a long notice of the terrible hail storm in
New York on the 1st of July. He traced its course, and minutely examined
all the phenomena relating to it, from a mile and a half south-east of
Paterson, N.J., to the east side of Long Island, where it appeared
nearly to have spent its force. It passed over the village of Aqueenac,
striking the Island of New York in the vicinity of the Crystal Palace.
It was not much more than half a mile wide. The size of the hail-stones
was almost incredibly large, many of them being as large as a hen's egg,
and the Professor saw several which he thought as large as his fist.
Some of them weighed nearly half a pound. The principal facts in
relation to this storm were published at the time, and need not be
repeated. The discussions arising among the members as to the origin and
the size of these hail-stones, and the phenomena of the storm, were
exceedingly interesting. They were participated in by Professors Heustus
and Hosford, of Cambridge University, Professor Loomis, and Professors
Bache and Redfield. The latter two gentlemen differ somewhat, we should
suppose radically, in their meteorological theories, and had some very
sharp but very pleasant "shooting" between them."[13]
CENTRAL VORTEX DESCENDING.
We will now make the calculation for the central vortex _descending_,
for longitude 88d 50' west, August 7, 1853,--putting down the necessary
elements for the time of the meridian passage in order:
Meridian passage in local time at 2h. 25m. P.M.
" " in Greenwich time 7d. 8h. 18m.
Mass of the moon 1/12.3 M. R. V. minor 3,256 miles.
Obliquity of the vortex, same time 26d 5' 0"
Polar angle of " " 17 41 47
True longitude of moon's node " 78 42 0
" inclination of orbit " 5 5 0
" longitude of the sun " 135 20 0
Moon's longitude " 169 44 0
" distance from node " 91 2 0
" distance from quadrature " 55 36 0
" true semi-diameter " 943
" right ascension " 172 30 0
" declination north " 8 42 20
Constant logarithm 2.889214
Arith. comp. of log. of 943 7.025488
Log. cos. arc. AR 9.914702 = 34d 44' 48"
1st. correction, + 2 45 0
2d. correction, - 1 14 15
--------------
Corrected arc AQ = 36 15 33
PA = 81d 17' 40"
PV = 26 5 0
P = 115 11 47
V = 63 34 26
A = 23 28 24
AV = 92 48 39
Q = 31 32 18
Complement of lat. = PQ = 48d 49' 41"
The latitude is therefore for
the earth, as a sphere 41 10 18
Correction for protuberance + 0 16 0
------------
True latitude of centre 41 26 18 north.
------------
Latitude of Ottowa 41 20 0 "
------------
Vortex passed 6 18 north of Ottowa.
[Illustration: Fig. 16]
As this was nearly a central passage, and as the influence was less
extensive than usual, on account of great atmospheric pressure with a
low dew point, the central disturbance could the more readily be
located, and was certainly to the north, and but a few miles. The
following is from the record of the weather:
_August_ 6th. Very fine and clear all day; wind from S.-W.; a light
breeze; 8 P.M. frequent flashes of lightning in the northern sky;
10 P.M. a _low bank of dense clouds in north_, fringed with cirri,
visible during the flash of the lightning; 12 P.M. same continues.
7th. Very line and clear morning; wind S.-W. moderate; noon, clouds
accumulating in the northern half of the sky; wind fresher S.-W.; 3 P.M.
a clap of thunder overhead, and black cumuli in west, north, and east;
4 P.M. much thunder, and scattered showers; six miles west rained very
heavily; 6 P.M. the heavy clouds passing over to the south; 10 P.M.
clear again in north.
_August_ 8th. Clear all day; wind the same (S.-W.); a hazy bank visible
all along on _southern horizon_.
This was not a storm, in the ordinary acceptation of the term; but the
same cause, under other circumstances, would have produced one; and let
it be borne in mind, that although the moon is the chief disturbing
cause, and the passages of the vortices are the periods of greatest
commotion in both settled and unsettled weather, still the sun is
powerful in predisposing the circumstances, whether favorable or
unfavorable; and as there is no periodic connection between the passage
of a vortex and the concurrence of the great atmospheric waves, it will,
of course, happen only occasionally that all the circumstances will
conspire to make a storm. There are also other modifying causes, to
which we have not yet alluded, which influence the storms at different
seasons of the year,--exaggerating their activity in some latitudes, and
diminishing it in other latitudes. In this latitude, the months of May,
June, and July are marked by more energetic action than August,
September, and October. The activity of one vortex also, in one place,
seems to modify the activity of another vortex in another place. But the
great question to decide is: Do these vortices really exist? Do they
follow each other in the _order_ indicated by the theory? Do they pass
from south to north, and from north to south, at the _times_ indicated
by the theory? Do they obey, in their monthly revolutions, a
mathematical law connecting them with the motions of the moon? We answer
emphatically, Yes! And the non-discovery of these facts, is one of the
most humiliating features of the present age.
OTTOWA STORM, DECEMBER 22, 1852.
To show that the same calculations are applicable for other times, we
will make the calculation for the _centre ascending_, for the 22d
December, 1852, taking the following elements:
Moon's mer. passage, Dec. 22d 15h. 16m. G. time.
" right ascension, same time 51d 57'
" declination north 15 42
" true S. Diameter 886.6"
" distance from node 37
" " " quadrature 52
--------
Which gives the arc AR 29 5
1st correction -1 51
2d +1 11
--------
Corrected arc AQ 28 25
--------
And the latitude at the time of the meridian passage = 42d north, or
about forty miles north of Ottawa.
Abstract from the record:--
[14]_Dec._ 21st, 1852. Wind N.-E., fine
weather.
_Dec._ 22d. Thick, hazy morning, wind east, much lighter in S.-E. than
in N.-W.; 8 A.M., a clear arch in S.-E. getting more to south; noon,
very black in W. N.-W.; above, a broken layer of cir. cumulus, the sun
visible sometimes through the waves; wind round to S.-E., and fresher;
getting thicker all day; 10 P.M., wind south, strong; thunder,
lightning, and heavy rain all night, with strong squalls from south.
_Dec._ 23d. Wind S.-W., moderate, drizzly day; 10 P.M., wind west, and
getting clearer.
The next day the vortex passed the latitude of Montreal (the moon being
on the meridian about 10 P.M.)
MAGNETIC STORM, DECEMBER 23, 1852.
In the July number of Vol. XVI. of Silliman's Journal, we find certain
notices of the weather in 1852, by Charles Smallwood, of St. Martins,
nine miles east of Montreal. He mentions "two remarkable electrical
storms (which) occurred on the 23d and 31st of December, (in which)
sparks 5/40 of an inch were constantly passing from the conductor to the
discharger for several hours each day." At 10 P.M. (23d) the vortex
passed over Montreal, and again descending on the 31st North, and was
visible at Ottowa on the morning of the 1st of January, with southerly
wind setting towards it. On the 29th of December, Mr. Smallwood records
"a low auroral arch, sky clear." On the 20th, the vortex was 5d to the
northward of Montreal, and the aurora was consequently low--the
brightest auroras being when the vortex is immediately north without
storm, or one day to the northward, although we have seen it _very low_
when the vortex was three days to the north, and no other vortex near.
LIVERPOOL STORM.
On the night of the 24th of December, the same central vortex ascending
passed between Cape Clear and Liverpool.
On the 25th, at midnight, the vortex passed to the north of Liverpool:
its northerly progress being very slow, being confined for three days
between the parallel of Liverpool and its extreme northern limit in
latitude about 57d. The accompanying account of the weather will show
the result of a long-continued disturbance near the same latitude:
The Baltic, three days out from Liverpool, encountered the vortex on the
night of the 23d. On the morning of the 25th, very early, the gale
commenced at Liverpool, and did much damage. On the 26th, the vortex
attained its northern limit; but we have not been able to procure any
account of its effects to the northward of Liverpool, although there can
be but little doubt that it was violent on the coast of Scotland on the
26th; for the next day (27th) the vortex having made the turn, was near
the latitude of Liverpool, and caused a _tremendous_ storm, thus showing
a continued state of activity for several days, or a peculiarly
favorable local atmosphere in those parts. It is very probable, also,
that there was a conjunction of the central and inner vortex on the
27th. The inner vortex precedes the central in passing latitude 41d; but
as the mean radius of its orbit is less than that of the central, it
attains to a higher latitude, and has, consequently, to cross the path
of the central, in order again to precede it descending in latitude 41d.
As a very trifling change in the elements of the problem will cause
great changes in the positions of the vortices on the surface of the
earth, it cannot now be asserted that such a conjunction did positively
occur at that time; but, it maybe suspected, that a double disturbance
would produce a greater commotion, or, in other words, a more violent,
storm.
It is on this account, combined with other auxiliary causes, that the
vicinity of Cape Horn is so proverbially stormy, as well as for the low
standard of the barometer in that latitude, it is the stationary point
of the vortices in ordinary positions of the nodes and perigee of the
moon. We have already alluded to the fact, that none of the vortices
scarcely ever pass much beyond latitude 80d, and then only under
favorable circumstances, so that we ought to infer, that gales in high
latitudes should set from the poles towards the storms in lower
latitudes. This is, no doubt, the fact, but, nevertheless, a hard
southerly blow _may possibly_ occur in high northern latitudes, if a
storm should be raging very violently in a lower latitude on the
opposite side of the pole, the distance across the circle of 80d being
only about 1,400 miles. As the different vortices have a different limit
in latitude every year, the determination of this turning point is
obviously of great practical utility, as the fact may yet be connected
with other phenomena, so as to give us the probable character of the
polar ice at any assigned time. On this point we have more to say.
PASSAGES OF ALL THE VORTICES.
Our remarks have hitherto been confined to the central vortex. We shall
now show from the record, that the other vortices are as effective in
deranging the equilibrium of our atmosphere. In the following table we
have given the passages of the different vortices, which will serve as
their true positions within moderate limits, to calculate from, for all
future time.
PASSAGES OF THE CENTRAL AND LATERAL VORTICES, OBSERVED IN JUNE AND JULY,
1853, IN LATITUDE 41d 20' NORTH.
I signifying Inner; O, outer; C, central; A, ascending; D, descending.
____________________________________________________________________
| | | | | | |
| Order.|Vortex.| Date. | Meridian |Passage.| Calculated latitude |
| | | | Passage. | | and Remarks. |
|_______|_______|_________|__________|________|______________________|
| | | | | | |
| 1st | I. A. | June 22 | 7 A.M. | south | Centre. About 40d. |
| | | 23 | 8 A.M. | north | Warsaw. Storm. |
| 2d | O. D. | 27 | 0 noon | north | |
| | | 28 | 1 A.M. | south | See record. |
| 3d | C. A. | July 1 | 9 A.M. | south | |
| | | 2 | 10 A.M. | north | Lat. 43d. Storm. |
| 4th | I. D. | 7 | 5 P.M. | north | |
| | | 8 | 6 P.M. | south | Lat. New York. Storm.|
| 5th | C. D. | 12 | 5 P.M. | north | Aurora. |
| | | 13 | 6 P.M. | south | Stormy, very. |
| 6th | O. A. | 14 | 10 A.M. | south | |
| | | 15 | 11 A.M. | north | See Record. |
|_______|_______|_________|__________|________|______________________|
The intervals between the ascending and descending passages of the
different vortices, are
Between I. A. and I. D. from 11 to 14 days.
" O. A. " O. D. " 10 " 12 "
" C. A. " C. D. " 9 " 11 "
and the effect is greatest when the vortex comes to the meridian before
the sun, and least when after the sun; in which case the full effect is
not developed, sometimes until the following day.
A brief abstract from a journal of the weather for one sidereal period
of the moon, in 1853.
_June_ 21st. Fine clear morning (S. fresh)[15]: noon very warm 88d;
4 P.M. plumous _cirri in south_; ends clear.
22d. Hazy morning (S. very fresh) arch of cirrus in west; 2 P.M., black
in W.-N.-W.; 3 P.M., overcast and rainy; 4 P.M., a heavy gust from
south; 4.30 P.M., blowing furiously (S. by W.); 5 P.M., tremendous
squall, uprooting trees and scattering chimneys; 6 P.M., more moderate
(W.)
23d. Clearing up (N.-W.); 8 A.M., quite clear; 11 A.M., bands of mottled
cirri pointing N.-E. and S.-W.; ends cold (W. N.-W.); the cirri seem to
rotate from left to right, or with the sun.
24th. Fine clear cool day, begins and ends (N.-W.)
25th. Clear morning (N.-W, light); 2 P.M. (E.) calm; tufts of tangled
cirri in north intermixed with radiating streaks, all passing eastward;
ends clear.
26th. Hazy morning (S.-E) cloudy; noon, a heavy windy looking bank in
north (S. fresh), with dense cirrus fringe above on its upper edge;
clear in S.
27th. Clear, warm, (W.); bank in north; noon bank covered all the
northern sky, and fresh breeze; 10 P.M., a few flashes to the northward.
28th. Uniform dense cirro-stratus, (S. fresh); noon showers all round;
2 P.M., a heavy squall of wind, with thunder and rain (S.-W. to N.-W.);
8 P.M., a line of heavy cumuli in south; 8.30 P.M., a very bright and
high cumulus in S.-W., protruding through a layer of dark stratus;
8.50 P.M., the cloud bearing E. by S., with three rays of electric
light.[16]
[Illustration: Fig. 17]
_June_ 29th. A stationary stratus over all, (S.-W. light); clear at
night, but distant lightning in S.
30th. Stratus clouds (N.-E. almost calm); 8 A.M., raining gently;
3 P.M., stratus passing off to S; 8 P.M., clear, pleasant.
_July_ 1st. Fine and clear; 8 A.M., cirrus in sheets, curls, wisps, and
gauzy wreathes, with patches beneath of darker shade, all nearly
motionless; close and warm (N.-E.); a long, low bank of haze in S., with
one large cumulus in S.-W., but very distant.
_July_ 2d. At 5 A.M., overcast generally with hazy clouds and fog of
prismatic shades, chiefly greenish-yellow; 7 A.M., (S.-S.-E.
freshening,) thick in W; 8 A.M., (S. fresh) much cirrus, thick and
gloomy; 9 A.M., a clap of thunder, and clouds hurrying to N.; a reddish
haze all around; at noon the margin of a line of yellowish-red cumuli
just visible above a gloomy-looking bank of haze in N.-N.-W., (S. very
fresh;) warm, 86d; more cumuli in N.-W.--the whole line of cumuli N. are
separated from the clouds south by a clear space. These clouds are borne
rapidly past the zenith, but never get into the clear space--they seem
to melt or to be turned off N.-E. The cumuli in N. and N.-W., slowly
spreading E. and S.; 3 P.M., the bank hidden by small cumuli; 4 P.M.,
very thick in north, magnificent cumuli visible sometimes through the
breaks, and beyond them a dark, watery back-ground, (S. strong);
4.30 P.M., wind round to N.-W. in a severe squall; 5 P.M., heavy rain,
with thunder, &c.--all this time there is a bright sky in the south
visible through the rain 15d high; 7 P.M., clearing, (S.-W. mod.)
_July_ 3d. Very fine and clear, (N.-W.); noon, a line of large cumuli in
N., and dark lines of stratus below, the cumuli moving eastward; 6 P.M.,
their altitude 2d 40'. Velocity 1d per minute; 9 P.M., much lightning in
the bank north.[17]
_July_ 4th. 6 A.M., a line of small cumulo-stratus, extending east and
west, with a clear horizon north and south 10d high. This band[18] seems
to have been thrown off by the central yesterday, as it moves slowly
south, preserving its parallelism, although the clouds composing it move
eastward. Fine and cool all day--(N.-W. mod.)--Lightning in N.
_July_ 5th. Cloudy (N. almost calm), thick in E., clear in W.; same all
day.
6th. Fine and clear (E. light); small cumuli at noon; clear night.
7th. Warm (S. E. light); cirrus bank N. W.; noon (S.) thickening in N.;
6 P.M., hazy but fine; 8 P.M., lightning in N.; 10 P.M., the lightning
shows a heavy line of cumuli along the northern horizon; calm and very
dark and incessant lightning in N.
8th. Last night after midnight commencing raining, slowly and steadily,
but leaving a line of lighter sky south; much lightning all night, but
little thunder.
8th. 6 A.M. Very low scud (500 feet high) driving south, still calm
below, (N. light); 10 A.M., clearing a little; a bank north with cirrus
spreading south; same all day; 9 P.M., wind freshening (N. stormy);
heavy cumuli visible in S.; 10.30 P.M., quite clear, but a dense watery
haze obscuring the stars; 12 P.M., again overcast: much lightning in S.
and N.-W.
9th. Last night (2 A.M. of 9th) squall from N.-W. very black; 4 A.M.,
still raining and blowing hard, the sky a perfect blaze, but very few
flashes reach the ground; 7 A.M., raining hard; 8 A.M. (N.-W. strong); a
constant roll of thunder; noon (N.-E.); 2 P.M. (N.); 4 P.M. clearing;
8 P.M., a line of heavy cumuli in S., but clear in N-W., N., and
N.-E.[19]
NEW YORK STORM, JULY 8, 1853.
"At 5 o'clock Friday afternoon, a terrible storm of rain, hail, and
lightning, rose suddenly from the north-west, and passed over the upper
part of the city and neighborhood. It was quite moderate in the lower
part of the town, and probably scarcely felt on Staten Island. The whole
affair lasted not more than a quarter of an hour, yet the results were
most disastrous, as will be seen by the following accounts from our
reporters:
"Happening to be in the neighborhood of the Palace about 5 o'clock
Friday evening, we sought shelter under its ample roof from an impending
thunder storm, of very threatening appearance, rapidly approaching from
the west. We had scarcely passed the northern entrance, and reached the
gallery by the nearest flight of steps, when the torrent--it was not
rain, but an avalanche of water--struck the building; the gutters were
filled on the windward side in a moment, and poured over an almost
unbroken sheet of water, which was driven through the Venetian blind
ventilators, into and half way across the north-west gallery, and also
through the upper ventilators, falling upon the main floor of the north
transept. Workmen hastened to close the blinds, but that did not prevent
the deluge. The tinning of the dome being unfinished, the water, of
course, came down in showers all over the centre. Many workmen were
engaged on the dome when the shower struck it; several of them, in their
haste to escape such dangerous proximity to the terrific lightning, came
down single ropes, hand over hand. Large number of workmen were engaged
all over the exterior, and such a scampering will rarely be witnessed
but once in a lifetime. It was found impossible to close a north window,
used for ingress and egress of workmen upon the rod, and the water came
in, in almost solid columns. For a time the water was nearly two inches
deep on the gallery floor, and poured down the stairs in miniature
cascades.
"A great number of boxes, bales, and packages of goods lay upon the main
floor, among which the water poured down from the edge of the gallery
floor in destructive quantities; Fortunately but few goods were opened,
and were upon the tables, or the damage would have been irreparable. As
it is, we fear some of the goods are injured. In the height of the
storm, the centre portion of the fanlight over the western entrance
burst in, and several single lights were broken, by staging or
otherwise.
"About ten minutes after the storm burst, the most terrific hailstorm we
ever saw began to rattle, like discharges of musketry, upon the tin roof
and glass sides. Some of the masses of ice were as large as hen's eggs.
There were probably a thousand excited workmen in the building, and a
good many exhibitors and visitors, among whom there were some twenty
ladies, some of whom appeared a good deal alarmed at the awful din. A
portion of the frame-work of the addition next to 42d street, went down
with a terrible crash, and a part of the brick wall of the engine-house
on the opposite side of the street, was blown over, crushing two or
three shanties, fortunately without any other injury than driving the
occupants out into the storm. But an awful scene occurred on the north
side of 43d street, directly opposite the Latting Tower. Here two large
unfinished frame buildings were blown, or rather, we should judge from
appearances, were crushed down into a mass of ruins, such as may be
imagined by supposing a great weight had fallen, with a circular,
grinding motion, upon the first fine fabrics. One of them was partly
sided, and had the rafters up, but no roof; the other was sided and
rooted with tin, and was being plastered. We were told it was three
stories high, 50 by 98 feet.
"We reached the ruins among the first, after the burst of the storm
subsided a little. The scene was such as we pray God we may never
witness again. A small portion of the roof and upper part of the front
of the building stood or rather partly hung over the side-walk. The
chamber and lower floor of the front rooms lay flat together. The sides
were standing. In the rear all were down. In this building, besides the
workmen, there were numerous laborers who had taken shelter under its
roof when the storm drove them hurriedly from their work. How so many
persons escaped death is truly wonderful. It can only be accounted for
by supposing that they had a moment's warning, and rushed into the
street. The first alarm was from the tearing off a portion of the tin
roof, which was carried high over another building, and fell in the
street. A horse and cart barely escaped being buried under this. It
seems the frame of the other building came down with a deafening crash
at the same time, confusing instead of warning those in danger. At any
rate, before they could escape, they were buried in a mass of timber,
and three of them instantly killed, and four or five dangerously
wounded; and others slightly bruised and badly frightened. Several would
have perished but for timely assistance to extricate them. In this they
were greatly assisted by Jacob Steinant, boss carpenter of the Tower,
who with his men rushed to the rescue, notwithstanding the pouring down
torrents.
"In Williamsburgh, the storm lasted about fifteen minutes, doing an
incalculable amount of damage to dwellings, foliage, &c. Hailstones came
down in sizes from that of a hickory-nut to a large apple, some with
such force as to drive them through the cloth awnings.
"The storm passed over Brooklyn lightly, in comparison with the effects
across the Williamsburgh line. On Flushing avenue, beyond the Naval
Hospital, a number of trees were uprooted, and the window-panes of the
houses shattered. On the corner of Fulton and Portland avenues, three
buildings were unroofed, and the walls of the houses were sprung to the
foundation.