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Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3

V >> Various >> Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3




The theory of Brown and Morris of the degradation of starch, although based
on experimental evidence of some weight, is by no means universally
accepted. Nevertheless it is of considerable interest, as it offers a
rational and consistent explanation of the phenomena known to accompany the
transformation of starch by diastase, and even if not strictly correct it
has, at any rate, proved itself to be a practical working hypothesis, by
which the mashing and fermenting operations may be regulated and
controlled. According to Brown and Morris, the starch molecule consists of
five amylin groups, each of which corresponds to the molecular formula
(C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}. Four of these amylin radicles are grouped
centrally round the fifth, thus:--

(C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20} (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
\ /
(C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
/ \
(C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20} (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}

By the action of diastase, this complex molecule is split up, undergoing
hydrolysis into four groups of amyloins, the fifth or central group
remaining unchanged (and under brewing conditions unchangeable), forming
the substance known as stable dextrin. When diastase acts on starch-paste,
hydrolysis proceeds as far as the reaction represented by the following
equation:--

5(C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20} + 80 H_2O
starch. water.
= 80 C_{12}H_{22}O_{11} + (C_{12}H_{20}O_{10})_{20}
maltose. stable dextrin.

The amyloins are substances containing varying numbers of amylin (original
starch or dextrin) groups in conjunction with a proportional number of
maltose groups. They are not separable into maltose and dextrin by any of
the ordinary means, but exhibit the properties of mixtures of these
substances. As the process of hydrolysis proceeds, the amyloins become
gradually poorer in amylin and relatively richer in maltose-groups. The
final products of transformation, according to Brown and J.H. Millar, are
maltose and glucose, which latter is derived from the hydrolysis of the
stable dextrin. This theory may be applied in practical brewing in the
following manner. If it is desired to obtain a beer of a stable
character--that is to say, one containing a considerable proportion of
high-type amyloins--it is necessary to restrict the action of the diastase
in the mash-tun accordingly. On the other hand, for mild running ales,
which are to "condition" rapidly, it is necessary to provide for the
presence of sufficient maltodextrin of a low type. Investigation has shown
that the type of maltodextrin can be regulated, not only in the mash-tun
but also on the malt-kiln. A higher type is obtained by low kiln and high
mashing temperatures than by high kiln and low mashing heats, and it is
possible therefore to regulate, on scientific lines, not only the quality
but also the type of amyloins which are suitable for a particular beer.

The chemistry of the nitrogenous constituents of malt is equally important
with that of starch and its transformations. Without nitrogenous compounds
of the proper type, vigorous fermentations are not possible. It may be
remembered that yeast assimilates nitrogenous compounds in some of their
simpler forms--amides and the like. One of the aims of the maltster is,
therefore, to break down the protein substances present in barley to such a
degree that the wort has a maximum nutritive value for the yeast. Further,
it is necessary for the production of stable beer to eliminate a large
proportion of nitrogenous matter, and this is only done by the yeast when
the proteins are degraded. There is also some evidence that the presence of
albumoses assists in producing the foaming properties of beer. It has now
been established definitely, by the work of A. Fernbach, W. Windisch,
F.Weiss and P. Schidrowitz, that finished malt contains at least two
proteolytic enzymes (a peptic and a pancreatic enzyme).

[Illustration: BREWING

PLATE I.

FIG. 5.--REFRIGERATORS IN "LAGER" BREWERY OF MESSRS. ALLSOPP.

The hot wort trickles over the outside of the series of pipes, and is
cooled by the cold water which circulates in them. From the shallow
collecting trays the cooled wort is conducted to the fermenting backs.]

[Illustration: BREWING

PLATE II.

FIG. 6.--BURTON-UNION SYSTEM OF CLEANSING. (MESSRS. ALLSOPP'S BREWERY.)

The green beer is filled into the casks, and the excess of yeast, &c., then
works out through the swan necks into the long common gutter shown.]

[v.04 p.0513]

The presence of different types of phosphates in malt, and the important
influence which, according to their nature, they exercise in the brewing
process by way of the enzymes affected by them, have been made the subject
of research mainly by Fernbach and A. Hubert, and by P.E. Petit and G.
Labourasse. The number of enzymes which are now known to take part in the
brewing process is very large. They may with utility be grouped as
follows:--

Name. Role or Nature.
+- Cytase Dissolves cell walls of
| of starch granules.
In the malt ----+- Diastase A Liquefies starch
or mash-tun. +- Diastase B Saccharifies starch.
+- Proteolytic Enzymes -+- (1) Peptic.
| +- (2) Pancreatic.
+- Catalase Splits peroxides.

In fermenting +- Invertase Inverts cane sugar.
wort and -----+- Glucase Splits maltose into glucose.
yeast. +- Zymase Splits sugar into alcohol
and carbonic acid.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W.J. Sykes, _Principles and Practice of Brewing_ (London,
1897); Moritz and Morris, _A Text-book of the Science of Brewing_ (London,
1891); H.E. Wright, _A Handy Book for Brewers_ (London, 1897); Frank
Thatcher, _Brewing and Malting_ (London, 1898); Julian L. Baker, _The
Brewing Industry_ (London, 1905); E.J. Lintner, _Grundriss der
Bierbrauerei_ (Berlin, 1904); J.E. Thausing, _Die Theorie und Praxis der
Malzbereitung und Bierfabrikation_ (Leipzig, 1898); E. Michel, _Lehrbuch
der Bierbrauerei_ (Augsburg, 1900); E. Prior, _Chemie u. Physiologie des
Malzes und des Bieres_ (Leipzig, 1896). Technical journals: _The Journal of
the Institute of Brewing_ (London); _The Brewing Trade Review_ (London);
_The Brewers' Journal_ (London); _The Brewers' Journal_ (New York);
_Wochenschrift fuer Brauerei_ (Berlin); _Zeitschrift fuer das gesammte
Brauwesen_ (Munich).

(P. S.)

[1] They were classified at 28 lb in 1896, but since 1897 the standard has
been at the rate of 32 lb to the bushel.

[2] Inclusive of rice and maize.

[3] Exclusive of rice and maize.

[4] As a rule there is no separate "collecting vessel," duty being assessed
in the fermenting vessels.

BREWSTER, SIR DAVID (1781-1868), Scottish natural philosopher, was born on
the 11th of December 1781 at Jedburgh, where his father, a teacher of high
reputation, was rector of the grammar school. At the early age of twelve he
was sent to the university of Edinburgh, being intended for the clerical
profession. Even before this, however, he had shown a strong inclination
for natural science, and this had been fostered by his intimacy with a
"self-taught philosopher, astronomer and mathematician," as Sir Walter
Scott called him, of great local fame--James Veitch of Inchbonny, who was
particularly skilful in making telescopes. Though he duly finished his
theological course and was licensed to preach, Brewster's preference for
other pursuits prevented him from engaging in the active duties of his
profession. In 1799 he was induced by his fellow-student, Henry Brougham,
to study the diffraction of light. The results of his investigations were
communicated from time to time in papers to the _Philosophical
Transactions_ of London and other scientific journals, and were admirably
and impartially summarized by James D. Forbes in his preliminary
dissertation to the eighth edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. The
fact that other philosophers, notably Etienne Louis Malus and Augustin
Fresnel, were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in France
does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though
in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others.

The most important subjects of his inquiries are enumerated by Forbes under
the following five heads:--(1) The laws of polarization by reflection and
refraction, and other quantitative laws of phenomena; (2) The discovery of
the polarizing structure induced by heat and pressure; (3) The discovery of
crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their
phenomena, including the connexion of optical structure and crystalline
forms; (4) The laws of metallic reflection; (5) Experiments on the
absorption of light. In this line of investigation the prime importance
belongs to the discovery (1) of the connexion between the refractive index
and the polarizing angle, (2) of biaxial crystals, and (3) of the
production of double refraction by irregular heating. These discoveries
were promptly recognized. So early as the year 1807 the degree of LL.D. was
conferred upon Brewster by Marischal College, Aberdeen; in 1815 he was made
a member of the Royal Society of London, and received the Copley medal; in
1818 he received the Rumford medal of the society; and in 1816 the French
Institute awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for
the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe
during the two preceding years. Among the non-scientific public his fame
was spread more effectually by his rediscovery about 1815 of the
kaleidoscope, for which there was a great demand in both England and
America. An instrument of higher interest, the stereoscope, which, though
of much later date (1849-1850), may be mentioned here, since along with the
kaleidoscope it did more than anything else to popularize his name, was
not, as has often been asserted, the invention of Brewster. Sir Charles
Wheatstone discovered its principle and applied it as early as 1838 to the
construction of a cumbrous but effective instrument, in which the binocular
pictures were made to combine by means of mirrors. To Brewster is due the
merit of suggesting the use of lenses for the purpose of uniting the
dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly
be said to be his invention. A much more valuable practical result of
Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse
system. It is true that the dioptric apparatus was perfected independently
by Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into
operation. But it is indisputable that Brewster was earlier in the field
than Fresnel; that he described the dioptric apparatus in 1812; that he
pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as 1820, two
years before Fresnel suggested it; and that it was finally introduced into
British lighthouses mainly by his persistent efforts.

Brewster's own discoveries, important though they were, were not his only,
perhaps not even his chief, service to science. He began literary work in
1799 as a regular contributor to the _Edinburgh Magazine_, of which he
acted as editor at the age of twenty. In 1807 he undertook the editorship
of the newly projected _Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_, of which the first part
appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830. The work was strongest in
the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from
the pen of the editor. At a later period he was one of the leading
contributors to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (seventh and eighth
editions), the articles on Electricity, Hydrodynamics, Magnetism,
Microscope, Optics, Stereoscope, Voltaic Electricity, &c., being from his
pen. In 1819 Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in
conjunction with Robert Jameson (1774-1854), the _Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal_, which took the place of the _Edinburgh Magazine_. The first ten
volumes (1819-1824) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster
and Jameson, the remaining four volumes (1825-1826) being edited by Jameson
alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the _Edinburgh
Journal of Science_ in 1824, sixteen volumes of which appeared under his
editorship during the years 1824-1832, with very many articles from his own
pen. To the transactions of various learned societies he contributed from
first to last between three and four hundred papers, and few of his
contemporaries wrote so much for the various reviews. In the _North British
Review_ alone seventy-five articles of his appeared. A list of his larger
separate works will be found below. Special mention, however, must be made
of the most important of them all--his biography of Sir Isaac Newton. In
1831 he published a short popular account of the philosopher's life in
Murray's _Family Library_; but it was not until 1855 that he was able to
issue the much fuller _Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir
Isaac Newton_, a work which embodied the results of more than twenty years'
patient investigation of original manuscripts and all other available
sources.

Brewster's relations as editor brought him into frequent communication with
the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to
recognize the benefit that would accrue from regular intercourse among
workers in the field of science. In an article in the _Quarterly Review_ he
threw out a suggestion for "an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry
and philosophers," which was taken up by others and found speedy
realization in the British Association for the Advancement of [v.04 p.0514]
Science. Its first meeting was held at York in 1831; and Brewster, along
with Charles Babbage and Sir John F. W. Herschel, had the chief part in
shaping its constitution. In the same year in which the British Association
held its first meeting, Brewster received the honour of knighthood and the
decoration of the Guelphic order of Hanover. In 1838 he was appointed
principal of the united colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, St Andrews.
In 1849 he acted as president of the British Association and was elected
one of the eight foreign associates of the Institute of France in
succession to J.J. Berzelius; and ten years later he accepted the office of
principal of the university of Edinburgh, the duties of which he discharged
until within a few months of his death, which took place at Allerly,
Melrose, on the 10th of February 1868.

In estimating Brewster's place among scientific discoverers the chief thing
to be borne in mind is that the bent of his genius was not
characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws
which he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To
the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he
contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy in this connexion that if he did
not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never
explicitly adopted the undulatory theory of light. Few will be inclined to
dispute the verdict of Forbes:--"His scientific glory is different in kind
from that of Young and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of
polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double
refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the
intellectual history of the age." In addition to the various works of
Brewster already noticed, the following may be mentioned:--Notes and
Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's _Elements of Geometry_
(1824); _Treatise on Optics_ (1831); _Letters on Natural Magic,_ addressed
to Sir Walter Scott (1831); _The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of
Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler_ (1841); _More Worlds than One_ (1854).

See _The Home Life of Sir David Brewster,_ by his daughter Mrs Gordon.

BREWSTER, WILLIAM (c. 1566-1644), American colonist, one of the leaders of
the "Pilgrims," was born at Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire, England, about
1566. After studying for a short time at Cambridge, he was from 1584 to
1587 in the service of William Davison (? 1541-1608), who in 1585 went to
the Low Countries to negotiate an alliance with the states-general and in
1586 became assistant to Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth's secretary of state.
Upon the disgrace of Davison, Brewster removed to Scrooby, where from 1590
until September 1607 he held the position of "Post," or postmaster
responsible for the relays of horses on the post road, having previously,
for a short time, assisted his father in that office. About 1602 his
neighbours began to assemble for worship at his home, the Scrooby manor
house, and in 1606 he joined them in organizing the Separatist church of
Scrooby. After an unsuccessful attempt in 1607 (for which he was imprisoned
for a short time), he, with other Separatists, removed to Holland in 1608
to obtain greater freedom of worship. At Leiden in 1609 he was chosen
ruling elder of the Congregation. In Holland he supported himself first by
teaching English and afterwards in 1616-1619, as the partner of one Thomas
Brewer, by secretly printing, for sale in England, books proscribed by the
English government, thus, says Bradford, having "imploymente inough." In
1619 their types were seized and Brewer was arrested by the authorities of
the university of Leiden, acting on the instance of the British ambassador,
Sir Dudley Carleton. Brewster, however, escaped, and in the same year, with
Robert Cushman (c. 1580-1625), obtained in London, on behalf of his
associates, a land patent from the Virginia Company. In 1620 he emigrated
to America on the "Mayflower," and was one of the founders of the Plymouth
Colony. Here besides continuing until his death to act as ruling elder, he
was also--regularly until the arrival of the first pastor, Ralph Smith (d.
1661), in 1629 and irregularly afterward--a "teacher," preaching "both
powerfully and profitably to ye great contentment of ye hearers and their
comfortable edification." By many he is regarded as pre-eminently the
leader of the "Pilgrims." He died, probably on the 10th of April 1644.

See Ashbel Steele's _Chief of the Pilgrims; or the Life and Time of William
Brewster_ (Philadelphia, 1857); and a sketch in William Bradford's _History
of the Plimouth Plantation_ (new ed., Boston, 1898).

BREZE the name of a noble Angevin family, the most famous member of which
was PIERRE DE BREZE (c. 1410-1465), one of the trusted soldiers and
statesmen of Charles VII. He had made his name as a soldier in the English
wars when in 1433 he joined with Yolande, queen of Sicily, the constable
Richmond and others, in chasing from power Charles VII.'s minister La
Tremoille. He was knighted by Charles of Anjou in 1434, and presently
entered the royal council. In 1437 he became seneschal of Anjou, and in
1440 of Poitou. During the Praguerie he rendered great service to the royal
cause against the dauphin Louis and the revolted nobles, a service which
was remembered against him after Louis's accession to the throne. He fought
against the English in Normandy in 1440-1441, and in Guienne in 1442. In
the next year he became chamberlain to Charles VII., and gained the chief
power in the state through the influence of Agnes Sorel, superseding his
early allies Richmond and Charles of Anjou. The six years (1444-1450) of
his ascendancy were the most prosperous period of the reign of Charles VII.
His most dangerous opponent was the dauphin Louis, who in 1448 brought
against him accusations which led to a formal trial resulting in a complete
exoneration of Breze and his restoration to favour. He fought in Normandy
in 1450-1451, and became seneschal of the province after the death of Agnes
Sorel and the consequent decline of his influence at court. He made an
ineffective descent on the English coast at Sandwich in 1457, and was
preparing an expedition in favour of Margaret of Anjou when the accession
of Louis XI. brought him disgrace and a short imprisonment. In 1462,
however, his son Jacques married Louis's half-sister, Charlotte de Valois,
daughter of Agnes Sorel. In 1462 he accompanied Margaret to Scotland with a
force of 2000 men, and after the battle of Hexham he brought her back to
Flanders. On his return he was reappointed seneschal of Normandy, and fell
in the battle of Montlhery on the 16th of July 1465. He was succeeded as
seneschal of Normandy by his eldest son Jacques de Breze (c. 1440-1490),
count of Maulevrier; and by his grandson, husband of the famous Diane de
Poitiers, Louis de Breze (d. 1531), whose tomb in Rouen cathedral,
attributed to Jean Goujon and Jean Cousin, is a splendid example of French
Renaissance work.

The lordship of Breze passed eventually to Claire Clemence de Maille,
princess of Conde, by whom it was sold to Thomas Dreux, who took the name
of Dreux Breze, when it was erected into a marquisate. HENRI EVRARD,
marquis de Dreux-Breze (1762-1829), succeeded his father as master of the
ceremonies to Louis XVI. in 1781. On the meeting of the states-general in
1789 it fell to him to regulate the questions of etiquette and precedence
between the three estates. That as the immediate representative of the
crown he should wound the susceptibilities of the deputies was perhaps
inevitable, but little attempt was made to adapt traditional etiquette to
changed circumstances. Breze did not formally intimate to President Bailly
the proclamation of the royal seance until the 20th of June, when the
carpenters were about to enter the hall to prepare for the event, thus
provoking the session in the tennis court. After the royal seance Breze was
sent to reiterate Louis's orders that the estates should meet separately,
when Mirabeau replied that the hall could not be cleared except by force.
After the fall of the Tuileries Breze emigrated for a short time, but
though he returned to France he was spared during the Terror. At the
Restoration he was made a peer of France, and resumed his functions as
guardian of an antiquated ceremonial. He died on the 27th of January 1829,
when he was succeeded in the peerage and at court by his son Scipion
(1793-1845).

The best contemporary account of Pierre de Breze is given in the
_Chroniques_ of the Burgundian chronicler, Georges Chastellain, who had
been his secretary. Chastellain addressed a _Deprecation_ to Louis XI. on
his behalf at the time of his disgrace.

[v.04 p.0515] BRIALMONT, HENRI ALEXIS (1821-1903), Belgian general and
military engineer, son of General Laurent Mathieu Brialmont (d. 1885), was
born at Venlo in Limburg on the 25th of May 1821. Educated at the Brussels
military school, he entered the army as sub-lieutenant of engineers in
1843, and became lieutenant in 1847. From 1847 to 1850 he was private
secretary to the war minister, General Baron Chazal. In 1855 he entered the
staff corps, became major in 1861, lieutenant-colonel 1864, colonel in 1868
and major-general 1874. In this rank he held at first the position of
director of fortifications in the Antwerp district (December 1874), and
nine months later he became inspector-general of fortifications and of the
corps of engineers. In 1877 he became lieutenant-general. His far-reaching
schemes for the fortification of the Belgian places met with no little
opposition, and Brialmont seems to have felt much disappointment in this;
at any rate he went in 1883 to Rumania to advise as to the fortification
works required for the defence of the country, and presided over the
elaboration of the scheme by which Bucharest was to be made a first-class
fortress. He was thereupon placed _en disponibilite_ in his own service, as
having undertaken the Bucharest works without the authorization of his
sovereign. This was due in part to the suggestion of Austria, which power
regarded the Bucharest works as a menace to herself. His services were,
however, too valuable to be lost, and on his return to Belgium in 1884 he
resumed his command of the Antwerp military district. He had, further,
while in eastern Europe, prepared at the request of the Hellenic
government, a scheme for the defence of Greece. He retired in 1886, but
continued to supervise the Rumanian defences. He died on the 21st of
September 1903.

In the first stage of his career as an engineer Brialmont's plans followed
with but slight modification the ideas of Vauban; and his original scheme
for fortifying Antwerp provided for both enceinte and forts being on a
bastioned trace. But in 1859, when the great entrenched camp at Antwerp was
finally taken in hand, he had already gone over to the school of polygonal
fortification and the ideas of Montalembert. About twenty years later
Brialmont's own types and plans began to stand out amidst the general
confusion of ideas on fortification which naturally resulted from the
introduction of long-range guns, and from the events of 1870-71. The
extreme detached forts of the Antwerp region and the fortifications on the
Meuse at Liege and Namur were constructed in accordance with Brialmont's
final principles, viz. the lavish use of armour to protect the artillery
inside the forts, the suppression of all artillery positions open to
overhead fire, and the multiplication of intermediate batteries (see
FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). In his capacity of inspector-general
Brialmont drafted and carried out the whole scheme for the defences of
Belgium. He was an indefatigable writer, and produced, besides essays,
reviews and other papers in the journals, twenty-three important works and
forty-nine pamphlets. In 1850 he originated the _Journal de l'armee Belge_.
His most important publications were _La Fortification du temps present_
(Brussels, 1885); _Influence du tir plongeant et des obus-torpilles sur la
fortification_ (Brussels, 1888); _Les Regions fortifiees_ (Brussels, 1890);
_La Defense des etats et la fortification a la fin du XIX^e siecle_
(Brussels, 1895); _Progres de la defense des etats et de la fortification
permanente depuis Vauban_ (Brussels, 1898).

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