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Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3

V >> Various >> Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Part 3




The origin of the bugle, in common with that of the hunting horn, is of the
highest antiquity. During the middle ages, the word "bugle" was applied to
the ox and also to its horns, whether used as musical instruments or for
drinking. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes a definition of bugle dating
from c. 1398: "The Bugle ... is lyke to an oxe and is a fyers [v.04 p.0706]
beest."[7] In 1300 a romance[8] contains the word used in both
acceptations, "A thousand bugles of Ynde," and "tweye bugle-hornes and a
bowe." F. Godefroy[9] gives quotations from early French which show that,
as in England, the word bugle was frequently used as an adjective, and as a
verb:--"IIII cors buglieres fist soner de randon" (_Quatre fils Aymon_, ed.
P. Tarbe, p. 32), and "I grant cor buglerenc fit en sa tor soner" (_Aiol_,
7457, _Societe des anciens textes francais_). Tubas, horns, cornets and
bugles have as common archetype the horn of ram, bull or other animal,
whose form was copied and modified in bronze, wood, brass, ivory, silver,
&c. Of all these instruments, the bugle has in the highest degree retained
the acoustic properties and the characteristic scale of the prototype, and
is still put to the original use for giving military signals. The shofar of
the ancient Hebrews, used at the siege of Jericho, was a cow's horn (Josh.
vi. 4, 5, 8, 13, &c.), translated in the Vulgate _buccina_, in the
paraphrase of the Chaldee _buccina ex cornu_. The directions given for
sounding the trumpets of beaten silver described in Numbers x. form the
earliest code of signals yet known; the narrative shows that the Israelites
had metal wind instruments; if, therefore, they retained the more primitive
cow's horn and ram's horn (shofar), it was from choice, because they
attached special significance to them in connexion with their ritual. The
trumpet of silver mentioned above was the _Khatsotsrah_, probably the long
straight trumpet or tuba which also occurs among the instruments in the
musical scenes of the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians. Gideon's use of a
massed band of three hundred shofars to terrify and defeat the Midianites
(Judges vii. 16), and Saul's call to arms (1 Sam. xiii. 3) show that the
value of the shofar as a military instrument was well understood by the
Jews. The cornu was used by the Roman infantry to sound the military calls,
and Vegetius[10] states that the tuba and buccina were also used for the
same purpose. Mahillon possesses a facsimile of an ancient Etruscan cornu,
the length of which is 1.40 m.; he gives its scale,[11] pitched one tone
below that of the bugle in E flat, as that of D flat, of which the
harmonics [Illustration] from the second to the sixth are available. The
same department of the British Museum was enriched in 1904 with a
terra-cotta model (fig. 2) of a late Roman bugle (c. 4th century A.D.),
bent completely round upon itself to form a coil between the mouthpiece and
the bell-end (the latter has been broken off). This precious relic was
found at Ventoux in France and has been acquired from the collection of M.
Morel. This is precisely the form of bugle now used as a badge by the first
battalion of the King's Own Light Infantry.[12] During the middle ages the
use of the bugle-horn by knights and huntsmen, and perhaps also in naval
warfare, was general in Europe, as the following additional quotations will
show: "XXX cors bugleres, fait l'amirax soner" (_Conq. de Jerusalem_, 6811,
Hippeau); "Two squyers blewe ... with ij grete bugles hornes" (Caxton,
_Chron. Engl. ccix. 192_). The oliphant was a glorified bugle-horn made of
rich material, such as ivory, carved and inlaid with designs in gold and
silver.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Terra Cotta Model of Roman Bugle, 4th cent.
(British Museum).]

The history of the bugle as a military instrument is in England closely
connected with the creation of the light infantry, in which it gradually
superseded the drum[13] as a duty and signal instrument. It was during the
17th century that the change was inaugurated; improvements in firearms
brought about the gradual abandonment of armour by the infantry, and the
formation of the light infantry and the adoption of the bugle followed by
degrees. One of the oldest light infantry regiments, Prince Albert's 1st
Somerset Light Infantry, formed in 1685 by the earl of Huntingdon, employed
a drummer at that date at a shilling per day.[14] At the end of the 18th
century we find the bugle the recognized signal instrument in the light
infantry, while the trumpet remained that of the cavalry. The general order
introducing the bugle as a minor badge for the light infantry is under date
28th of December 1814. In 1856 the popularity of the keyed or Royal Kent
bugle in the army had reached its height. A bugle-band was formed in the
Royal Artillery as a substitute for the drum and fife band.[15] The
organization and training of this bugle-band were entrusted to
Trumpet-major James Lawson, who raised it to a very high standard of
excellence. Major Lawson was a fine cornet player, and finding the scale of
the service bugle too restricted he obtained permission to add to it a
valve attachment, which made the bugle a chromatic instrument like the
cornet, in fact practically a saxhorn. Before long, horns in E flat, tenor
horns in B flat, euphoniums and bass tubas were added, all made of copper,
and in 1869 the name of "bugle band" was changed to R.A. Brass Band, and in
1877 it was merged in the Mounted Band. The bugle with its double
development by means of keys into Royal Kent bugle and ophicleide, and by
means of valves into saxhorns and tubas, formed the nucleus of brass bands
of all countries during the greater part of the 19th century. The
Fluegelhorn, as its name denotes, became the signal instrument of the
infantry in Germany as in England, and still holds it own with the keyed
bugle in the fine military bands of Austro-Hungary.

There is in the department of prehistoric antiquities at the British Museum
a fine bugle-horn belonging to the Bronze Age in Denmark; the tube, which
has an accentuated conical bore, is bent in a semi-circle, and has on the
inner bend a series of little rings from which were probably suspended
ornaments or cords. An engraved design runs spirally round the whole length
of the tube, which is in an excellent state of preservation.

Meyerbeer introduced the bugle in B flat in his opera _Robert-le-Diable_ in
the scene of the resurrection of the nuns, and a bugle in A in the fifth
act.

See, for further information on the technique of the instrument, Logier's
_Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Royal Kent Bugle_ (London,
Clementi, 1820); and for the use of the bugle in the French army, G.
Kastner, _Le Manuel general de musique militaire_ (with illustrations,
Paris, 1848).

(K. S.)

[1] The word is derived from Lat. _buculus_, a young bull. "Bugle," meaning
a long jet or black glass bead, used in trimming ladies' dresses, is
possibly connected with the Ger. _Bugel_, a bent piece of metal. The
English name "bugle" is also given to a common labiate plant, the _Ajuga
reptans_, not to be confused with the "Bugloss" or _Anchusa officinalis_.

[2] For diagrams of these mouthpieces see V.C. Mahillon, _Elements
d'acoustique_ (Brussels, 1874), p. 96.

[3] See E. van der Straeten, _La Musique aux Pays-bas_, vol. vii. p. 38,
where the instrument is not mentioned as a novelty; also Leon, comte de
Laborde, _Les Ducs de Bourgogne_, pt. ii. (_Preuves_), (Paris, 1849), tom.
i. p. 365, No. 1266.

[4] Martin Agricola, _Musica Instrumentalis deudsch_ (Wittenberg, 1528), f.
viii^b.

[5] Michael Praetorius, _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbuettel, 1618), pl. viii.
No. 5.

[6] See Captain C.R. Day, _Descript. Catalogue_ (London, 1891), pp.
168-169, and pl. xi. fig. D.

[7] Barthol. Trevisa, _De Propr. Rebus_, xviii., xv., 1495, 774.

[8] _King Alisaunder_, 5112 and 5282.

[9] _Dictionnaire de l'ancienne langue francaise du IXe an XVe siecle._

[10] _De re militari_, bk. iii. ch. v.

[11] See _Catal. descriptif du musee instrumental du conservatoire de
Bruxelles_, vol. i. (Ghent, 1880), p. 331. There are, in the department of
Greek and Roman antiquities at the British Museum, two bronze Etruscan
cornua, No. 2734, resembling the hunting horns of the middle ages and bent
in a semicircular shape. They measure from end to end respectively 2 ft. 1
in. and 2 ft. 2 in.

[12] Maj. J.H.L. Archer, _The British Army Records_ (London, 1888), p. 402.

[13] For the use of the drum in the 16th century, see Sir John Smyth,
_Instructions and Observations for all Chieftaines, Captaines, &c._
(London, 1595), pp. 158-159.

[14] See Richard Cannon, _Historical Records_ of the regiment (London,
1848), p. 3.

[15] See H.G. Farmer, _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band_ (London, 1904),
p. 183.

BUGTI, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) origin, numbering about 15,500, who
occupy the hills to the east of the Sind-Peshin railway, between Jacobabad
and Sibi, with the Marris (a cognate tribe) to the north of them. Like the
Marris, the Bugtis are physically a magnificent race of people, fine
horsemen, good swordsmen and hereditary robbers. An expedition against them
was organized by Sir C. Napier in 1845, but they were never brought under
control till Sir Robert Sandeman ruled Baluchistan. Since the construction
of the railway, which completely outflanks their country, they have been
fairly orderly.

BUHLE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1763-1821), German scholar and philosopher, was
born at Brunswick, and educated at Goettingen. He became professor of
philosophy at Goettingen, Moscow (1840) and Brunswick. Of his numerous
publications, [v.04 p.0707] the most important are the _Handbuch der
Geschichte der Philosophie_ (8 vols., 1796-1804), and _Geschichte der
neueren Philosophie_ (6 vols., 1800-1805). The latter, elaborate and well
written, is lacking in critical appreciation and proportion; there are
French and Italian translations. He edited Aratus (2 vols., 1793, 1801) and
part of Aristotle (Bipontine edition, vols. i.-v., 1791-1904).

BUHTURI [al-Walid ibn 'Ubaid Allah] (820-897), Arabian poet, was born at
Manbij (Hierapolis) in Syria, between Aleppo and the Euphrates. Like Abu
Tammam, he was of the tribe of Tai. While still young, he went to visit Abu
Tammam at Horns, and by him was commended to the authorities at Ma'arrat
un-Nu'man, who gave him a pension of 4000 dirhems (about L90) yearly. Later
he went to Bagdad, where he wrote verses in praise of the caliph Motawakkil
and of the members of his court. Although long resident in Bagdad he
devoted much of his poetry to the praise of Aleppo, and much of his
love-poetry is dedicated to Alwa, a maiden of that city. He died at Manbij
Hierapolis in 897. His poetry was collected and edited twice in the 10th
century, arranged in one edition alphabetically (i.e. according to the last
consonant in each line); in the other according to subjects. It was
published in Constantinople (A.D. 1883). Like Abu Tammam he made a
collection of early poems, known as the Hamasa (index of the poems
contained in it, in the _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, vol. 47,
pp. 418 ff., cf. vol. 45, pp. 470 ff.).

Biography in M^cG. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan's _Biographical
Dictionary_ (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 657 ff.; and in the
_Book of Songs_ (see ABULFARAJ), vol. xviii. pp. 167-175.

(G. W. T.)

BUILDERS' RITES. Many people familiar with the ceremonies attendant on the
laying of foundation stones, whether ecclesiastical, masonic or otherwise,
may be at a loss to account for the actual origin of the custom in placing
within a cavity beneath the stone, a few coins of the realm, newspapers,
&c. The ordinary view that by such means particulars may be found of the
event on the removal of the stone hereafter, may suffice as respects
latter-day motives, but such memorials are deposited in the hope that they
will never be disturbed, and so another reason must be found for such an
ancient survival. Whilst old customs continue, the reasons for them are
ever changing, and certainly this fact applies to laying foundation stones.
Originally, it appears that living victims were selected as "a sacrifice to
the gods," and especially to ensure the stability of the building. Grimm[1]
remarks "It was often thought necessary to immure live animals and even men
in the foundation, on which the structure was to be raised, to secure
immovable stability." There is no lack of evidence as to this gruesome
practice, both in savage and civilized communities. "The old pagan laid the
foundation of his house and fortress in blood." [Footnote: Baring-Gould on
"Foundations," _Murray's Mag._ (1887).] Under the walls of two round towers
in Ireland (the only ones examined) human skeletons have been discovered.
In the 15th century, the wall of Holsworthy church was built over a living
human being, and when this became unlawful, images of living beings were
substituted (_Folk-Lore Journal_, i. 23-24).

The best succinct account of these rites is to be obtained in G. W. Speth's
_Builders' Rites and Ceremonies_ (1893).

(W. J. H.*)

[1] _Teutonic Mythology_ (1883-1884), (trans. Stalleybrass).

BUILDING.[1] The art of building comprises the practice of civil
architecture, or the mechanical operations necessary to [Sidenote: Relation
of building to architecture.] carry the designs of the architect into
effect. It is not infrequently called "practical architecture," but the
adoption of this form would lead only to confusion, by rendering it
difficult to make the distinction generally understood between architecture
(_q.v._) as a fine or liberal art, and architecture as a mechanical art.
The execution of works of architecture necessarily includes building, but
building is frequently employed when the result is not architectural; a man
may be a competent builder without being an architect, but no one can be an
accomplished architect unless he be competent to specify and direct all the
operations of building. An architect should have a scientific knowledge of
the various soils he may meet with, such as clay, earth, silt, rock,
gravel, chalk, &c., so that when the trial holes are dug out on the site,
he can see the nature of the soil, and at once know what kind of a
foundation to put to the building, and the depth to which he must go to get
a good bottom. He should also have a good knowledge of chemistry, so that
he may understand the effects of the various acids, gases, &c., that are
contained in the materials he uses, and the objections to their presence.
He must be acquainted with the principles of timbering in trenches, and
excavations, shoring, brickwork, fireproof construction, stonework,
carpentry and joinery, smiths' work, plumbing, heating, ventilation, bells,
electric and gas lighting, water-supply, drainage, plastering, tiling to
internal walls or pavings and roofs, slating of roofs, glazing, painting
and decoration. He should be able to calculate the various strengths and
strains to be placed on any portion of the structure, and have a general
knowledge of the building trade, enabling him to deal with any difficulty
or defects that may arise.

An important feature in the qualification of the architect is that he
should be thoroughly conversant with the by-laws of the different towns or
districts, as to the requirements for the various classes of buildings, and
the special features of portions of the different buildings. The following
are examples of the various buildings which he may have to design, and the
erection of which he may have to superintend:--dwelling-houses, domestic
buildings, shops, dwellings for the working class, public buildings such as
churches, schools, hospitals, libraries and hotels, factories of all kinds
for all general trades, studios, electric power stations, cold storage
buildings, stables and slaughterhouses. With regard to factories, places
for the storage or making of different patent foods, and for slaughter of
beasts intended for human consumption, stringent by-laws are in most
countries laid down and enforced by the public health authorities. In
England, the Public Health Acts and By-laws are carried out by the various
borough or district authorities, who appoint inspectors especially to study
the health of the public with regard to sanitary arrangements. The
inspectors have special powers to deal with all improper or defective food,
or with any defects in buildings that may affect its cleanly preparation.

In addition to meeting the requirements of the clients, the various
buildings have to be constructed and planned on clearly [Sidenote: Reasons
for special type of plans.] defined lines, according to the rules of the
various authorities that control their erection; thus the construction and
planning of public schools are governed in England by the board of
education, and churches are governed by the various societies that assist
in financing the erection of these edifices; of these the Incorporated
Church Building Society exercises the strongest control. Factories both in
England and France must be planned and erected to meet the separate acts
that deal with these buildings. The fire insurance companies lay down
certain requirements according to the size of the building, and the special
trade for which it is erected, and fix their rate of premium accordingly.
Dwelling-houses in London must be erected in accordance with the many
building acts which govern the materials to be used, and the methods by
which they shall be employed, the thickness of walls, rates of inclination
of roofs, means of escape from fire, drainage, space at rear, &c. &c.;
these laws especially forbid the use of timber framed buildings. In sundry
districts in England where the model by-laws are not in force, notably at
Letchworth, Herts, it is possible to erect buildings with sound materials
untrammelled by by-laws. With regard to premises used in a combined way, as
shop and dwelling-house, if in London, and the building exceeds 10 squares,
or 1000 sq. ft. super in area, the stairs and a large portion of the
building must be built of fire-resisting materials. In the erection of
London flats under certain conditions the stairs and corridors [v.04
p.0708] must be of fire-resisting materials, while in parts of New York
timber buildings are allowed; for illustrations of these see the article
CARPENTRY. In public buildings and theatres in London, Paris and New York
not only the construction, but also the exits and seating accommodation and
stage, including the scenery dock and flies, must conform to certain
regulations.

The conditions necessary for planning a successful building may be
summarized as follows:--(1) Ease of access; (2) Good [Sidenote: Conditions
necessary for a successful building.] light (3) Good service; (4) Pleasing
environment and approaches; (5) Minimum cost with true economy; in the case
of office buildings, also ease of rearrangement to suit tenants. An
architect should also be practically acquainted with all the modes of
operation in all the trades or arts employed in building, and be able
minutely to estimate beforehand the absolute cost involved in the execution
of a proposed structure. The power to do this necessarily involves that of
measuring work (usually done by the quantity surveyor at an advanced stage
of the work), and of ascertaining the quantities to be done. In ordinary
practice the architect usually cubes a building at a price per foot cube,
as will be described hereafter, but an architect should know how to measure
and prepare quantities, or he cannot be said to be master of his
profession.

Building includes what is called construction, which is the branch of the
science of architecture relating to the practical [Sidenote: Construction.]
execution of the works required to produce any structure; it will therefore
be necessary to explain the subject in a general manner before entering
upon building in detail.

Although the styles of architecture have varied at different periods,
buildings, wherever similar materials are employed, must be constructed on
much the same principles. Scientific knowledge of the natures and
properties of materials has, however, given to the modern workman immense
advantages over his medieval brother-craftsman, and caused many changes in
the details of the trade, or art of building, although stones, bricks,
mortar, &c., then as now, formed the element of the more solid parts of all
edifices.

The object of constructions is to adapt, combine and fit materials in such
a manner that they shall retain in use the [Sidenote: General principles.]
forms and dispositions assigned to them. If an upright wall be properly
constructed upon a sufficient foundation, the combined mass will retain its
position and bear pressure acting in the direction of gravity to any extent
that the ground on which it stands, and the compound materials of the wall,
can sustain. But pressure acting laterally has a necessary tendency to
overthrow a wall, and therefore it will be the aim of the constructor to
compel, as far as possible, all forces that can act upon an upright wall,
to act in the direction of gravity, or else to give it permanent means of
resistance in the direction opposite to that in which a disturbing force
may act. Thus when an arch is built to bear against an upright wall, a
buttress or other counterfort is applied in a direction opposed to the
pressure of the arch. In like manner the inclined roof of a building
spanning from wall to wall tends to thrust out the walls, and hence a tie
is applied to hold the opposite sides of the roof together at its base,
where alone a tie can be fully efficient, and thus the roof is made to act
upon the walls wholly in the direction of gravity; or where an efficient
tie is inapplicable, as in the case of a hammer beam roof, buttresses or
counterforts are added to the walls, to enable them to resist the pressure
outwards. A beam laid horizontally from wall to wall, as a girder to carry
a floor and its load, may sag or bend downwards, and tend thereby to force
out the walls, or the beam itself may break. Both these contingencies are
obviated by trussing, which renders the beam stiff enough to place its load
on the walls in the direction of gravity, and strong enough to carry it
safely. Or if the beam be rigid in its nature, or uncertain in its
structure, or both (as cast-iron is), and will break without bending, the
constructor by the smiths' art will supply a check and ensure it against
the possible contingency.

Perfect stability, however, is not to be obtained with materials which are
subject to influences beyond the control of man, and all matter is subject
to certain influences of that nature. The [Sidenote: Materials.] influences
mostly to be contended against are heat and humidity, the former of which
produces movement of some kind or to some extent in all bodies, the latter,
in many kinds of matter; whilst the two acting together contribute to the
disintegration or decay of materials available for the purposes of
construction. These pervading influences the constructor seeks to
counteract, by proper selection and disposition of his materials.

Stone and brick, the principal materials in general construction, keep
their places in combination by means of gravity. They may [Sidenote:
Stone.] be merely packed together, but in general they are compacted by
means of mortar or cement, so that although the main constituent materials
are wholly incompressible, masses of either, or of both, combined in
structures are compressible, until the setting medium has indurated to a
like condition of hardness. That kind of stone is best fitted for the
purposes of general construction which is least absorbent of moisture, and
at the same time free to work. Absorbent stone exposed to the weather
rapidly disintegrates, and for the most part non-absorbent stone is so hard
that it cannot always be used with a due regard to economy. When,
therefore, suitable stone of both qualities can be obtained, the harder
stone can be exposed to the weather, or to the action which the softer
stone cannot resist, and made to form the main body of the structure of the
latter so protected. The hard and the soft should be made to bear alike,
and should therefore be coursed and bonded together by the mason's art,
whether the work be of stone wrought into blocks and gauged to thickness,
or of rough dressed or otherwise unshaped rubble compacted with mortar.

Good bricks are less absorbent of moisture than any stone of the same
degree of hardness, and are better non-conductors [Sidenote: Bricks.] of
heat than stone. As the basis of a stable structure, brickwork is more to
be relied upon than stone in the form of rubble, when the constituents bear
the relation to one another last above referred to, the setting material
being the same in both; because the brick by its shaped form seats itself
truly, and produces by bonding a more perfectly combined mass, whilst the
imperfectly shaped and variously sized stone as dressed rubble can neither
bed nor bond truly, the inequalities of the form having to be compensated
for with mortar, and the irregularity of size of the main constituent
accounted for by the introduction of larger and smaller stones. The most
perfect stability is to be obtained, nevertheless, from truly wrought and
accurately seated and bonded blocks of stone, mortar being used to no
greater extent than may be necessary to exclude wind and water and prevent
the disintegrating action of these agents upon even the most durable stone.
When water alone is to be dealt with, and especially when it is liable to
act with force, mortar is necessary for securing to every block in the
structure its own full weight, and the aid of every other collateral and
superimposed stone, in order to resist the loosening effect which water in
powerful action is bound to produce.

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